Introduction to FreeBSD.

An Absolute Beginners Guide to FreeBSD

This project was started on Feb 13, 1997. If you have anything to comment on, please email us at fbsd-book@vmunix.com

Contents

Part 1.  Introduction
Part 2.  Installation
Part 3.  Running FreeBSD
Part 4.  Customizing your FreeBSD System
Part 5.  Setting up your Network
Part 6.  Setting up the X Window System
Part 7.   System Administration
Part 8.   Practical FreeBSD Applications

:
Introduction

1.  Discovering FreeBSD
2.  Where the Information is Stored online
3.  General Guidelines for FreeBSD
4.  FreeBSD Mailing Lists
5.  Subscribing To A Mailing List

1.   Discovering FreeBSD

This book is designed for the new user and new system administrator of FreeBSD. This was written to help those who have no real UNIX background easily get started using FreeBSD. No matter what application, whether as a desktop system, or installed as a Internet server, FreeBSD has the power and the flexibility required to meet even the most demanding situations. FreeBSD, however, requires more of an administrative approach than most over-the-counter operating systems. Yet, because of this approach, FreeBSD requires less administration per functionality than Windows 95 and certainly several other operating systems. Given the correct approach, managing a FreeBSD system is simple and can be quite fun.

Even if you are just using FreeBSD as a desktop machine, it has the full power of a server and you are the new system administrator. Its hard to imagine yourself as a ``system administrator'' on a single Win95 machine, but technically it is a system, and you do administrate it. The reason it seems odd to call yourself a system administrator is because only one person can use a Win95 computer at a time.

FreeBSD is a multi-user system: Several people can access the same computer at the same time. This includes more than the ``File Serving'' capabilities of WinNT and Novell Servers. The users connected to the FreeBSD machine have access all their normal functionality as though they were actually at the server console. Users can even interact if they choose. FreeBSD also gives you much more control over the system than DOS or Windows 95. You have the ability to modify system parameters ``live'', not just edit the configuration file and have the changes take affect after you have rebooted. For example, you can change the IP address of your machine and then test immediately to see if it is working. You don't have to wait 5 minutes for your computer to reboot to see if a change has worked.

More and more as the Internet becomes a part of our lives and shapes the way we do business, companies and individuals are looking for economical ways of enhancing their abilities. Companies, in particular, are now in the position of providing Internet and intranet services to attract customers and improve business processes. At the same time, although hardware costs are coming down, software and support costs are steadily increasing. For the individual, the Internet is an entrepreneur's paradise. However, as they start up, they have to find inexpensive ways to provide the same range of services as large businesses on a budget that barely permits purchasing the hardware.

In a sense, UNIX is the touchstone of the Internet. There is now a strong emphasis on the standard protocols of the Internet---TCP/IP, DNS, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, POP3, IMAP, and the rest of the alphabet soup--- and most of those standards were developed or refined on the UNIX operating system. FreeBSD addresses both issues: It's based on one of the standards of the UNIX world, BSD 4.4, optimized for common, inexpensive Intel-based hardware, and (as the name implies) it's free.

Internet protocols are some of the strongest and most reliable features of FreeBSD. FreeBSD has many powerful WWW, DNS, and E-mail servers available. It also has a wide variety of TCP/IP related software available.

FreeBSD has may practical applications:

2.   Where the Information is Stored online

Information about FreeBSD is available from several sources. Most of the documentation is on-line, in a wide variety of formats.

Internet Web Sites:

There are a lot of good web sites out there on FreeBSD. The simplest method to find information is to start with the Official FreeBSD web sites.

The above are part of the ongoing FreeBSD Documentation Project, which includes tutorials written by FreeBSD experts, and references to useful books.

There are also a lot of other web pages out there that have to do with FreeBSD and UNIX in General.

The people at freebsd.org also provide a wide variety of mailing lists to talk about FreeBSD, report bugs, ask questions, keep you up to date on developments, and so on-- all the support you could want, and you don't have to pay anybody $195/hour. You can find out more about these at http://www.freebsd.org/support.html

CD-ROM:

Most of the Documentation is also available on the Installation CD-ROM, and can be accessed through DOS or Windows. It might be a good idea to look at the online documentation, and if you anticipate problems, print off the appropriate sections before trying to install FreeBSD.

Documentation, in limited forms, is available during installation.

Your system:

On your system you can find the most documentation. Including:

3.   General Guidelines for FreeBSD

Unix is case-sensitive.

FreeBSD treats uppercase and lowercase versions of a word as different words. Operating systems such as DOS and Windows 95 don't care if you use capital letters in filenames, or passwords. To those operating systems, FileName, filename and FiLeNAmE are all the same. In FreeBSD this is NOT true.

Keep the Caps Lock key off, almost everything is in lowercase.

E-mail me if you have any suggestions for this section. I am looking for things that you would have liked to have known about FreeBSD when you first started.

4.   FreeBSD Mailing Lists

A mailing list is an easy way for a group of people to keep in contact about a specific topic. Once you have subscribed to a particular mailing list, you will receive a copy of all the e-mail sent to that list. You will see people's questions as well as the answers. FreeBSD has several mailing lists designed to help people with their questions, to report problems, and to announce new releases.

Sending a question to the appropriate mailing list is an easy way to get a fast, correct answer. Responses come back usually in a couple of hours, but may take just minutes if someone knows the answer and responds immediately. You will not only get answers---you'll get solutions to your problems, because the participants on the list have often had the same experience, and a few of them were probably involved in writing the software in question.

Before you post a question, however, you will want to search the mailing list archives and read the on-line documentation mentioned previously. If you can't find what you are looking for in the documentation, pick the right list, and send the e-mail.

There are several lists available to open subscription. You will probably want to subscribe only to the lists you are actually going to use, and then just send letters to the other lists as the need arises. Otherwise, your message traffic will be unbearable.

You should avoid ``cross-posting''; that is, posting the same question to more than one list. Many of the people who receive your e-mail are members of several lists, and if you cross-post, they'll see your message several times. Pick the list you think the message should go to, and if it's wrong, you will be told, and your message will probably get forwarded for you.

Most likely you will start out subscribing to the freebsd-questions List. All questions pertaining to how to use and run FreeBSD belong on this list.

When writing to the mailing list about a problem, try to include as much information as possible about the system you are using, such as:

Note:

Also mention that you have searched the online documentation, and specify which documentation, because they may be able to direct you to something that you haven't looked at yet.

5.   Subscribing To A Mailing List

Here is a list of available FreeBSD mailing lists. This is only a partial list, intended to get you started. This list changes as new lists are created to keep track of the development of FreeBSD.

When subscribing to a mailing list, there are two addresses to be aware of. The subscription address and the distribution address. The subscription address is the address where you send an e-mail to become part of the list. The subscription address for all FreeBSD lists is the same: majordomo@freebsd.org. ``majordomo@freebsd.org'' is an automated mailing list manager. He only understands requests that are specially formatted, such as subscribe, unsubscribe, and help.

Each FreeBSD mailing list has it's own distribution address. This is the address that you send e-mail to if you want people to read it. Each member of the list receives a copy of the e-mail that you send to it's distribution address. Do not send subscribe, or unsubscribe commands to distribution addresses.

To subscribe to a mailing list, send an e-mail message to majordomo@freebsd.org

In the body of the message type:

subscribe freebsd-questions

subscribe freebsd-announce

END

The above example will add your name to the freebsd-questions and the freebsd-announce mailing lists. Majordomo will send you a confirmation notice that you have been added to the mailing list, and shortly thereafter you will begin receiving e-mail from the list.

The end command tells majordomo that you are done issuing requests. If you don't use end in your e-mail to majordomo, it will try to parse anything else in the document, such as your name and e-mail address, as a request for it to do something.

As soon as majordomo receives your request to join a mailing list, he will send you a confirmation e-mail. This e-mail will contain a special autorization code that you must re-send to majordomo. If you do not send this authorization code back, you will not be added to the mailing list.

This protects you from being subscribed to a FreeBSD mailing list with out you wanting to. It also prevents people with bogus accounts from subscribing.

:
Installation

6.  Choosing a RELEASE to install
7.  Getting A FreeBSD boot floppy from the Net.
8.  Preparing Distribution Sets.
9.  Using the Boot Floppy and Kernel Configuration
10.  Installing FreeBSD with the boot floppy
11.  Upgrading FreeBSD Versions
12.  Post install Configuration
13.  Adding Packages
14.  Installing the Ports Collection.

6.   Choosing a RELEASE to install

FreeBSD is a work in progress, continually developing and improving. A release is a stable snapshot of the development process. It is given a version number followed by -RELEASE. There are several releases to choose from, each providing unique opportunities for stability and innovation.

Currently there are three different lines of development.

The three branches can be found in either ``binary''(pre-compiled, ready to run) distributions, or as ``source'' distributions.

Note:

Source Releases require that you already have FreeBSD installed and running. The Source Releases are provided for upgrade, testing, and experimentation purposes. If this is your first install, you will want to use the -RELEASE distribution.

7.   Getting A FreeBSD boot floppy from the Net.

When a computer starts up it requires a certain amount of instructions to be able to start the operating system. This is called ``booting'' or ``boot-strapping'' a computer. The ``boot'' code must be stored on a device that the computer considers bootable. In other words, there are set boot devices that the computer checks for the code required to start the operating system.

The two main boot devices are the floppy drive and the hard disk. CD-ROM Drives and certain network cards can also be configured as boot devices on some systems. Once the boot code finishes initializing the computer, it loads the kernel. The kernel is the single most important part of FreeBSD. The kernel establishes the link between the hardware and the software, it contains all the device drivers, executes any programs, and controls all system resources.

FreeBSD has a floppy disk that contains this ``boot'' information, the kernel, and setup/install utility. This is often referred to as a ``boot floppy''. The boot floppy is stored as a disk image, a sector by sector copy of the contents of the floppy disk. The contents of each and every sector of the disk is copied into the contents of a 1.44 Meg file, thus preserving the native FreeBSD formatting and file structure. A conventional file by file copy of the disk would not preserve the FreeBSD file system across platforms. When this disk image is transfered to a floppy disk, using a low-level disk tool called rawrite.exe , or fdimage.exe, it transforms the floppy disk from a DOS-formatted disk, into a FreeBSD formatted, bootable installation floppy disk.

There are two ways to go about this, depending on which operating system you have most readily available. DOS or UNIX.

Obtaining the File:

The easiest method of obtaining the file requires a Web-Browser such as Netscape, or a FTP client such as NCFTP or WS-FTP and a formatted floppy disk. A 1.44M disk drive is required because the disk images are 1.44Meg in size. Start your web browser or FTP client and open to: ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/

Remember!:

* (Case is important!) FreeBSD recognizes the difference between Uppercase letters and Lowercase letters and considers them as different from each other. Windows and DOS systems don't.

Boot Floppies are -RELEASE specific. You need to know which version of FreeBSD you want to install and change to the matching directory. All of the versions available for download will be listed as a directory. If you have trouble selecting a -RELEASE, see the section on Selecting a -RELEASE to install. Once you have changed to appropriate -RELEASE directory, go to the floppies directory. Click on the boot.flp file and down load it to your computer.

Warning:

If any text appears on your screen, then it is not being downloaded to the harddisk, but to your screen. You will need to right-click on boot.flp and select save link as in order to save it to your computer. This happens mostly on Netscape.

Caution:

Do NOT Save it to your Floppy Drive at this point! Save it to a temporary directory on your hard disk or filesystem. You will transfer it to the floppy later using a special utitlity.

Caution:

If you are using FTP to download the floppy disk image, be sure to use ``binary mode'' to do the transfer. If you select ``ASCII'' mode, the file will be too big to fit on the floppy, and it will be corrupted.

The UNIX METHOD:

If you are creating the disk from a FreeBSD, or other UNIX workstation, you need access to the dd program and `` write permissions '' to the floppy disk.

Note:

This may require SuperUser access.

Insert floppy into the SERVER now. If you are using a telnet connection, Do not put the floppy into your local machine, it still belongs in the server.

At the prompt, type:

dd if=boot.flp of=/dev/fd0

The floppy drive light should come on and after a few minutes you will get a message telling you how many bytes of information were transferred and how fast. If you have any trouble or questions about dd read the dd man page.

The DOS METHOD:

To use the DOS method, you have to download the program rawrite from the FreeBSD FTP site. You can use Netscape or any other ftp client. Open to ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/tools/ Then download the rawrite.exe file. To use the program, from the DOS prompt, type rawrite When it prompts for the source file type: boot.flp and press ENTER. When it asks for the destination drive type a: and press ENTER. Now it should go though a bunch of "Writing Sector XX" stuff and the floppy disk light should come on for a while.

Win95 Users:

If you are using Win95, you should download and use fdimage.exe instead. It can be found in the same directory as rawrite.exe. However if you use rawrite under Win95, you must Maximize the DOS window by pressing ALT + ENTER

P.S. Be sure Win95 doesn't rename it to something like rawrite(3).exe instead, when you make several attempts to download it.

When the programs have finished writing to the floppy disk, you will have a FreeBSD Install/Boot floppy disk. Use it to install FreeBSD on all of your Machines.

8.   Preparing Distribution Sets.

This section explains how to prepare a custom media to install FreeBSD from. These medias include:

Note:

If you are not using one of these medias, please SKIP this section. (These are not the easiest or the recommended methods of installation. But they work.)

Each installation media looks for its files in a different directory. Inorder for the install program to find the installation files, you have to copy them into the correct directory.

For example, you want to install the Minimal Distribution Set from floppies. The Minimal Distribution Set requires the /bin distribution, ie. the /bin directory, be copied onto the floppies. The /bin directory can be found on the CD-ROM or from the FreeBSD FTP site, in the directory /pub/FreeBSD/2.2.6-RELEASE/. The bin directory and all its contents need to be copied onto MS-DOS formatted floppy disks. You will be able to fit about 6 files per disk. The files are named bin.aa, bin.ab, etc.

Important:

You will need to copy the file bin.inf onto the first disk.

When you get them on to the floppy disk you should be able to put it in a DOS machine and type dir

When all the files have been copied onto the floppy disks, you will have a set of FreeBSD installation floppy disks. Use them when prompted for during the installation.

To install from a DOS partition, you must first copy all of the required directories to C:\FreeBSD\.

To install from an Custom FTP site, copy all of the files into a publically accessable directory followed by FreeBSD/2.2.6-RELEASE/.

An NFS install utilizes a Network Shared Filesystem. This the method of filesystem shareing used by UNIX over a network. A directory will need to be exported on the distribution site. Copy all the required directories onto FreeBSD/2.2.6-RELEASE/ on that exported filesystem.

Listed below are the standard Distribution Sets that you can install and the directories that you will have to copy on to the media you are installing from.

Developer

X-Developer

Kern-Developer

User

X-User

Minimal

9.   Using the Boot Floppy and Kernel Configuration

At this point you should have chosen a -RELEASE to install and have decided what medium you are going to use to install it. It can be installed over the network using FTP or NFS, from an existing FreeBSD or MSDOS partition, from a CDROM, or with floppy disks. All installation media types require a boot floppy, except bootable CDROM installs. This part covers how to use the Boot Floppy, regardless of which media you will be installing from.

If you will be installing from floppy disks, MSDOS, existing UNIX partition, NFS, or custom FTP site, you will need prepare your installation media. Read the section on Preparing Distribution Sets, to find out what to download and where to put it.

Before you boot with the Boot Floppy, you should check your CMOS Settings. You need to have the boot sequence set to boot from 'A' drive then 'C' drive. If this is going to be a Server, you probably don't want APM (Power management) enabled. Before you exit CMOS, double check to see that your IDE drives are all properly recognized and installed. SCSI drives should be checked using a SCSI utility.

Note:

If you don't know what each piece of hardware in your computer is, gather all the documentation. You will definitely need it. The best information comes from the packing list that came with your computer, if you still have it. It should tell you what kinds of devices you have installed. If you already have an operating system installed on the computer, you can use various methods of finding out what is in your system. If you have DOS, try using msd. If you have Win95, try right-clicking on My Computer, selecting Properties, selecting device manager and printing out the information there.

Now put the Boot disk in the A: drive, or the boot drive, and restart the computer.

After a few moments, you should see a screen like: 

>> FreeBSD BOOT @ 0x10000: 639/31744 K of Memory

Usage: bios_drive:interface(unit,partition)kernel_name options
    bios_drive   0, 1, ...
    interface    fd, wd or sd
    unit         0, 1, ...
    partition    a, c, ...
    kernel_name  name of kernel, or ? for list of files in root directory
    options      -a (ask name) -C (cdrom) -c (userconfig) -D (dual consoles)
                 -d (debug early) -g (gdb) -h (serial console) -P (probe kbd)
                 -r (default root) -s (single user) -v (verbose)
Examples:
    1:sd(0,a)mykernel  boot `mykernel' on the first SCSI drive when one IDE
                       drive is present
    1:wd(2,a)          boot from the second (secondary master) IDE drive
    1:sd(0,a)?         list the files in the root directory on the specified
                       drive/unit/partition, and set the default bios_drive,
                       interface, unit and partition
    -cv                boot with the defaults, then run UserConfig to modify
                       hardware parameters (c), and print verbose messages (v)

Use ? for file list or press Enter for defaults
Boot:

This is the Boot Prompt. FreeBSD is giving you a chance to enter parameters different from the normal booting procedures. This is most often used to enter into the single user mode, or to boot from a different ``kernel.'' See the section on Compiling Custom Kernels for more detail on kernels.

If you don't press anything, it will assume after a few seconds that you don't want to enter anything extra and go on booting, using the default values. We want to use the default values at this point.

Next comes the kernel configuration menu: 

Skip kernel configuration and continue with installation.
Start kernel configuration in Visual Mode
Start kernel configuration in CLI Mode (experts only)

These options give us a chance to modify our kernel and make it scan for devices in places other than the default settings. If we skip the kernel configuration, we accept all the default values, move on to the next section of the install, and will not have another chance to change them until we reboot. We can start the kernel configuration in either of two modes, CLI (Command Line Interface), or Visual Mode (Menu Driven Interface). The Visual Mode is by far the easiest to use and understand.

Of these three options, we want to go into Start kernel configuration in Visual Mode. But, before we do that, we need to have a basic understanding of IRQ and Ports and devices.

At this point you don't need to know what they are so much, as you need to know that each device (hardware component) has one. You need to know what each device's IRQ and Port number is. This is why you need the documentation on each piece of hardware in your computer. Some of the devices will have IRQ's and Ports that you can set. These should be set before you begin your installation of FreeBSD. This may require jumper settings on the actual hardware itself, or use of a vendor supplied configuration utility to set it. The PCI devices won't need to be set up by you in the kernel configuration; This utility only affects ISA devices.

Once you know what each device in your computer is and what it's IRQ and Port # is, if it has one, then proceed into the visual kernel configuration. 

--Active-Drivers-------------------------------------21 Conflicts---------Dev-----IRQ----Port
Storage:	 	(Collapsed)
Network:	 	(Collapsed)
Communication:		(Collapsed)
Input:			(Collapsed)
Multimedia:
PCI:			(Collapsed)
Miscellaneous:	
--Inactive Drivers----------------------------------------------------------Dev--------------
Storage:	 	
Network:	 	
Communication:		(Collapsed)
Input:			(Collapsed)
Multimedia:
PCI:			
Miscellaneous:
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

This screen lets you modify or remove ISA devices from the boot scan. FreeBSD probes each device that it knows about when it boots up. All the devices in the ``Active Devices'' section will be probed, anything that is deleted from the ``Active Devices'' section will be moved into the ``Inactive Devices'' section and not probed. If you delete a device you need, you can go into the ``Inactive Devices'' section and re-activate it.

At the top of the screen you see ``21 Conflicts'' in Bold Print. This can be somewhat misleading, because there are not actually 21 physical conflicts. These are only potential conflicts. FreeBSD is telling us that if all the devices that it has been set to probe are present that there ``would'' be 21 Conflicts. FreeBSD is set up to probe all the devices it knows about and look for them at the most common IRQs and Ports. Since several pieces of hardware are commonly found at the same IRQ, it reports a potential conflict. For example, FreeBSD is probing for several different network cards at the same address, and since you only have one network card, the IRQ conflict is really non-existent.

Our job now is to look through the different sections of device drivers and de-activate or delete the ones that aren't in our system. For each device that we do find that belongs in our system, we need to make sure that the IRQ and Port values are correct.

It is not absolutely necessary to delete all of the unused devices, because when FreeBSD probes for them and does not find them, it ignores them. However, it would be wise to delete any extra devices that do not belong to the system, because they may have long time out values. In other words, FreeBSD waits for a long time to make sure that they really don't exist. Deleting them will speed up the boot process.

Most likely, all you will have to do is change the settings on a few devices and delete one or two others to speed things up. For example, In my system I have 2 SCSI drives, an NE2000 network card on IRQ 10, and a PS/2 mouse. I have to delete the IDE drivers, change the NE2000 driver (ed1) to IRQ 10, and enable the PS/2 mouse from the disabled list.

It still shows 18 conflicts, however, none of the equipment in conflict exists in my machine, so I can ignore it and continue on. I have resolved the conflicts for the equipment actually in my machine. If, after resolving conflicts for the equipment in your machine, you still have problems, you might try removing ``all'' the extra device drivers from the kernel configuration menu and checking for a conflict you might have overlooked.

If you have correctly erased ``all'' the extra devices and set the remaining devices to the correct IRQ and Port #, it should show no potential conflicts, with the exception of the PS/2 mouse. If it shows any remaining, it could be an actual conflict. Any actual conflict will result in both pieces of hardware not working properly. If you do end up with a potential conflict, after deleting ALL of the extra devices, you must move one of the offending devices to a different IRQ or Port (depending on where the conflict is) to avoid an actual conflict.

With this in mind, lets start with storage: With the storage section highlighted, press ENTER to expand the tree. Now you should have lots of SCSI controllers and disk controllers listed. These will cover everything from CD-ROMs to Tape Drives to Floppy disks. They are in alphabetical order. These are only ISA devices, PCI devices are taken care of automatically.

The first four are:

--Active-Drivers----------------------------21 Conflicts---------Dev-----IRQ----Port
Adaptec 154x SCSI Controller		   	CONF		aha0		0x330
Adaptec 152x SCSI Controller		       	            	aic0	11	0x340
Buslogic         SCSI Controller		CONF		bt0		0x330
Floppy Disk Controller						fdc0     6    	0x3f0

The above Buslogic and Adaptec controllers are in conflict trying to use the same Port. Deleting one of them, or changing one of them to an unused Port will eliminate a conflict. Just changing the Port that FreeBSD looks for will not solve your problem unless that is actually the Port that the hardware is set to. If the SCSI controller is set to Port 0x330 and so is the network card, one of them will have to change. Merely pointing FreeBSD to look for the SCSI controller in a different place, will appear to solve the problem, but will only suceed in misleading FreeBSD and hiding the fact that two devices are in conflict. The conflicting IRQ or DMA needs to be changed on the physical device, using a jumper or configuration program supplied by the vendor. Then FreeBSD needs to be pointed to the right place to look for it in this configuration menu.

The ``Dev'' listing is the file name that you will use to reference the hardware device in FreeBSD. It is the name of the actual device driver. All the devices are kept in a directory called /dev. So to access the floppy disk controller you would reference /dev/fdc0. Normally, however, you don't access device controllers, just the devices they control. See the section on Accessing the Floppy.

If you don't have SCSI in the system delete all the SCSI controllers, the same goes for IDE devices. Leave only the devices that actually exist in your system. If you delete an item and decide you need it, just press TAB and get it back from the Inactive Drivers section.

To change the IRQ or Port value of a device, press ENTER while the device is highlighted. This will open a box at the bottom of the screen allowing you to change the Port address, IRQ Number, Flags, and Memory Address. The Port address is a hexadecimal number. If it is shown in your documentation as a Port value of 330, it is probably 0x330. Use the TAB button to move between fields and then press q to quit and save the parameters. You can always go back and change them before you quit the kernel configuration editor.

When you are finally done with all of the kernel configurations, it may still show potential conflicts, but if you have configured everything correctly, there should be no actual conflicts.

PS/2 Mouse Users:

If you use a PS\2 Mouse, it will conflict with the Console, showing two conflicts. This is normal.

Be sure you have everything correct. Once you move past this screen, you won't have another chance to change the devices, unless you reboot. Then press q to save these parameters and continue with the Installation.

10.   Installing FreeBSD with the boot floppy

10.1.  An explanation of install screen options
10.2.  Step 1) Format, fdisk, and partition the disks
10.3.  Step 2) Allocate Filesystem Space
10.4.  Step 3) Select Distributions
10.5.  Step 4) Format and Configure the Media Type

Welcome to an install of FreeBSD. From here you can install FreeBSD on a new machine, upgrade an existing machine, configure your machine after an installation, and add extra distributions and packages.

OR,

With a special ``Fixit'' floppy disk or CD-ROM, you can troubleshoot problems in an existing system.

The install process is mostly automated. All the required information is collected before the installation actually starts. The Novice and Express installation options guide you through the information collection procedure. They let you install only after all necessary information has been gathered. The Custom install option gives you the flexibility of installing select sections without performing a complete install.

The install process consists of 4 Steps:

Note:

The next section is an explaination of each option on the main menu. If you want to begin installing immediately, skip ahead to Step 1.

10.1.   An explanation of install screen options

10.1.1.   Usage
10.1.2.   Doc
10.1.3.   KeyMap
10.1.4.   Options
10.1.5.   Novice
10.1.6.   Express
10.1.7.   Custom
10.1.8.   Fixit
10.1.9.   Upgrade
10.1.10.   Configure
10.1.11.   Load Configuration
10.1.12.   Index

10.1.1.   Usage

This screen is a tutorial on what each key does when you press it during the install. The ENTER key, sometimes called the RETURN key, will finish or exit you out of a menu whether or not you have selected anything. This might cause you to skip a menu section, thinking you have selected something.

You must press the SPACE BAR to select most menu items. Usually, an X will appear next to the selected item.

10.1.2.   Doc

FreeBSD comes with several very good sets of documents that are available during the install process. It is a good idea to read all the install documentation before attempting to install for the first time.

10.1.3.   KeyMap

If you need special characters to write in the language that you are running FreeBSD on, you need to use the keyboard map for that country. This page lets you select from the available keymaps.

10.1.4.   Options

This page lets you tweak with the default settings. For the most part, everything should work fine with the default values. Unless you know what you are doing, you probably shouldn't mess with this section.

10.1.5.   Novice

The Novice Install will walk you through each required part of the install process. Before each step, a help screen will appear and explain what is about to happen and what you are expected to do.

10.1.6.   Express

Express is just like Novice, but without all the help. It walks you through all the important steps and collects the information required to start the installation.

10.1.7.   Custom

The Custom Install allows you to do a specialized install, or a specific re-install, with out affecting previously installed components. For instance, this would allow you to add an extra hard drive to your system, or add/re-install a distribution. You could also repartition a hard disk or restore the boot-sector/boot-manager to your boot disk.

10.1.8.   Fixit

If anything should happen to your system that would cause it not to boot properly, the Fixit option will give you access to your filesystem. The Fixit option is an advanced feature. Knowledge of how to mount filesystems is required to gain access to your hard disks.

10.1.9.   Upgrade

The Upgrade option allows you to convert an existing FreeBSD machine to a new version of FreeBSD, without re-formatting your disk drives, or losing all of your data. An upgrade is a lot like re-installing a distribution set. It copies all the distributions you choose over the top of you existing files, replacing the ones with the same name. It does not delete extra files that it finds.

10.1.10.   Configure

This menu helps you setup your basic networking services, install extra packages (pre-compiled ``3rd party'' software), add additional distributions and prepare your system for general use.

10.1.11.   Load Configuration

10.1.12.   Index

This screen could be looked at as a ``Custom Install''. Instead of being organized into an install menu structure, all of the install commands have been extracted, alphabetized, and placed on a single menu. This makes it an alphabetized list of every command available during the install process. Pressing ENTER at this point, will execute the highlighted option as though you had selected it from an active menu.

10.2.   Step 1) Format, fdisk, and partition the disks

10.2.1.   A single disk FreeBSD ONLY install
10.2.2.   A single disk Multi-OS install
10.2.3.   A Multi-disk FreeBSD ONLY install
10.2.4.   A Multi-disk Multi-OS install

Here we are going to prepare our drives for use with FreeBSD. If you already have an operating system installed on your disks, and don't plan on using the whole disk for FreeBSD, you will need to free up a partition to install FreeBSD on. There are several methods of doing this. You can delete your stuff, re-arrange the partitions, and re-install it. (Cleanest, but takes the most work.) Or you can re-partition it using a program that preserves your information. There are several programs that can repartition your drives with out losing your information. A shareware program FIPS will work, or there are several commercial packages, such as ``Disk Magic''.

fips.exe can be found at ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/tools/fips.exe.

If you use DOS fdisk to make a new partition, you will be required to delete the existing partition. However, with FIPS and other such programs, you can ``shrink'' an existing partition, freeing up room for a new partition. FreeBSD can be installed on any available partition, including extended DOS partitions, logical drives, and Non-DOS partitions.

Note:

Once you have a partition available for FreeBSD, it does not matter if it is formatted, the install process will format it for use with FreeBSD. It makes no difference whether DOS or any other OS is installed on it.

Four possible fdisk scenarios are outlined, based on how many hard drives you have available, and whether FreeBSD is the only OS installed.

10.2.1.   A single disk FreeBSD ONLY install

This is the simplest install scenario. It is when you only have one disk in the computer and you want to dedicate it to FreeBSD.

In the fdisk editor, delete any partitions that may exist by moving the cursor to the partition and pressing d. Then press a to use the entire disk as shown in the figure below.

This is an example of a 2.1 Gig SCSI disk. It does not matter whether the disk is SCSI or IDE.

Now, press q to quit.

Install the standard MBR (Master Boot Record)

Use the SPACEBAR to select Standard and press ENTER to move on.

Move on to Step Two, ``Allocating filesystem space''.

10.2.2.   A single disk Multi-OS install

This is one of the more complex scenarios, you don't have to worry about which drive to boot from like you do with Multi-disk setup-ups, but you need to be careful about which OS you install First. DOS and FreeBSD are friendly to each other; Window95 and WinNT are not friendly to FreeBSD. They both want to try and take over the Boot Sector (MBR). Also, DOS and Win95 usually need to be installed on the first 1026 sectors of the first hard disk to avoid the 530Meg limit imposed by DOS.

Now you should see several partitions. The first one says that is it unused, starts at 0 and goes 63 sectors. This is your boot sector. There is nothing you can, or want to do with this at this time. Then you should see a section starting at 63 and named sd0s1 or wd0s1 depending on whether you have SCSI or IDE disks. sd0 is the name for a SCSI disk and s1 is the first partition we made on the drive.

You should see a big section that is unused. This will be used to create our FreeBSD partition.

If there is no partition marked unused, then the partition that you have reserved already has information on it, and will need to be deleted and recreated as a FreeBSD partition. Press d to delete a highlighted partition.

For example, you have 3 Gb of space on one disk. It is partitioned into a C: drive (2Gb), and a D: drive(1Gb). The plan is to keep your 'C: drive' and just use the 'D: drive' for FreeBSD. This is what your partition table looks like: 

offset   Size     End      Name   PType  Desc     Subtype
0	63	  62	     -	     6	 unused	     0
63	4193217   4193279  wd0s1     2   fat         6
4193280 2080512   6273791  wd0s2     4   extended    5
6273792 8064      6281855    -       6   unused      0

Here you want to delete the 'extended' partition and re-create it as a FreeBSD partition. Just highlight it and press 'd'. Then press 'c' to create a new one. Accept the default size.

The partition labeled fat is a DOS Partition. The partition labeled extended is an Extended DOS Partition. (ie not the primary DOS Partition)

The sizes are shown in 512 byte blocks instead of 1K blocks. So you need to cut the size in half. The size '4123217' partition is the 2G disk. The '2080512' size partiton is the 1G drive. The '8064' sized chunk is unallocatable space due to cylinder boundaries not matching up.

To create our FreeBSD partition, highlight an unused partition and press c for Create. If you want to use the remaining amount of space for FreeBSD, accept the number that is written in the box, otherwise enter a new number. There are two ways to enter the amount that you want. First you can specify the exact number of sectors that you want the partition to be. Or, you can specify the size in Megabytes by typing in the number followed by an M For example, If you want a partition of 1000 Megabytes, you type: 1000M in the box.

The following graphic shows a 1000M DOS partition, labeled 'fat', as sd0s1.

It also shows a 1100M FreeBSD partition.

Note:

By keeping the partition compatible with other partitions, a small portion of the hard drive might become unusable. The last partition shown on the graphic, starting at offset 4192965, is unusable. This is nothing to worry about, because it is a very small part of the available disk space. It is only 1093 Sectors in size.

When you are done creating your partitions, press q to quit and move on to the next part of the install.

Next it is going to ask how you want to boot the disk. Because we are booting several OSes from one disk, we need to install a boot manager.

This screen lets you select the Boot Manager that comes with FreeBSD. At this screen all you have to do is select BootMgr and it will install the BootEasy Boot Manager on to your disk.

Since BootMgr is the default, just press ENTER to go on.

Note:

There are other Boot Managers available, but this is the only one available during the install. If you have a boot manager already installed, such as OSBS or the OS/2 Boot loader, select NONE from the menu.

Move on to Step Two, ``Allocating filesystem space''.

10.2.3.   A Multi-disk FreeBSD ONLY install

This is a very common server-type setup. It is fairly easy to setup and very reliable.

Now we need to partition each of our disks. We will select one disk at a time and partition it, repeating the same process for each disk.

Select a disk by moving the cursor to the appropriate disk and pressing the space bar.

Caution:

* (Do NOT press ENTER at this point, because this will move us out of the FreeBSD fdisk utility, with out partitioning any disks.

Since this is a FreeBSD only install, we need to delete any partitions that are there and create new ones for FreeBSD. Move your cursor to each partition and press d until there is only one partition that says unused

Now, just press a to use the entire disk.

It will ask you if you want to keep the disk partition compatible with other OS's by making it a true partition. If you are using SCSI disks and are not going to be using any other OS on this system, it is fine to say no and dedicate them to FreeBSD. If you are using IDE drives, it might be a good idea to answer yes and let them conform to regular partitioning methods.

The following graphic is a 2.1 Gig SCSI disk that has NOT been keep compatible with other OS's, therefore it shows no Boot Sector.

We have just completed the fdisking the first disk; press q to quit and it will return us to the Select Drives menu. The disk we just finished will have a X in the box and the remaining disks still need to be fdisk'd. Repeat this procedure until all disks have been fdisk'd.

When all disks have been fdisk'd, press ENTER at the 'Select Drives' menu.

Move on to Step Two, ``Allocating filesystem space''.

10.2.4.   A Multi-disk Multi-OS install

A Multi-disk Multi-OS installation can take on just about any format imaginable. You can have one OS for each disk. Multi-OS's on a on Multiple disks; or any combination of the two. If you are putting more than one OS on a single disk, it will work exactly like the Single disk Multi-OS installation described previously. Of the several options available, one of the easiest, and most sane, is to put one OS per disk. For example, you would put DOS/Win95 on the First disk and FreeBSD on the second disk. I find this to be safer, because sometimes DOS tries to take over the first drive with out telling you and formats it without asking your permission.

One OS per Drive/Two Drive system.

In this example, we have two drives. We are going to put Win95 on the first drive and FreeBSD on the second. Win95 should already be installed and running on the first disk.

We are going to install the Boot Manager on the Win95 disk, because it is the boot disk. To do this, select the first disk, in this case sd0, and install the boot manager. At the Select Drives screen, move the cursor to the first disk and press the SPACE BAR.

This will bring up the fdisk partitioning editor.

At this screen, you should see one DOS partition. Do NOT delete or change it. just press q to quit out of it. Then the Boot Manager screen should come up.

Here we want to select BootMgr; since it is the default, we just need to press ENTER.

This will bring us back to the Select Drives screen. Now, just move the cursor to the next disk and press the SPACE BAR. From here it is exactly like a single disk FreeBSD install. Just delete any existing partitions by moving the cursor to them and pressing d. When they have been all deleted, press a to use the entire disk for FreeBSD. Then press q to quit. You will need to install the BootMgr on this disk also.

10.3.   Step 2) Allocate Filesystem Space

10.3.1.   Workstation\Desktop system
10.3.2.   Server (More than 100 People)
10.3.3.   Internet Server (E-mail/Pop3/Web Pages/FTP)
10.3.4.   News Server

The FreeBSD Filesystem is one big directory structure. There is no noticable separation of drives, or partitions, just one big filesystem. All additional hard drives must be assimilated into the directory system. This is accomplished by mounting each partition, sometimes called a ``slice'', as a sub-directory in the filesystem. A partition can mount to, or attach to, any existing directory, preferably an empty one.

Next, we will enter the disk label editor. This will allow you to distribute your disk space throughout the filesystem. At a minimum, you will need to allocate disk space for a / directory and for ``Swap Space''.

Space is allocated for a directory by mounting a partition, or ``slice'' of a partition, to it. If you do not allocate disk space for a directory, it will use disk space from it's parent directory. Below is an explanation of the standard directories that FreeBSD installs and whether you should consider allocating space for it. Subsections of this chapter describe extra allocations you should consider based on the anticipated use of your system. These are in addition to the basic allocations mentioned below.

10.3.1.   Workstation\Desktop system

Unless you have special plans, on a system like this, just use the defaults. Press a to use the defaults. This option will create a 32Meg / partition, a 32 Meg /var partition, calculate a swap partition based on available RAM memory, and allocate the rest as a /usr partition.

10.3.2.   Server (More than 100 People)

The more people you have on the system, the more you want to think about making a /home partition. You should decide on a minimum amount of disk space that you are going to alot for each user. Say 3-4 Megs of disk space for each user, and make /home partition that has enough space to hold all the anticipated user files.

10.3.3.   Internet Server (E-mail/Pop3/Web Pages/FTP)

On an e-mail server, you want to add extra space to the directory /var. The directories /var/log and /var/mail receive extra heavy use in Internet servers. If you anticipate a large volume of e-mail, you might want to add a separate /var/mail partition.

If this is a print server, /var/spool might get heavier than normal usage. However, spooled print jobs don't stay very long.

10.3.4.   News Server

A News server is a very advanced project, but I mention it here so you can plan disk space for it. You will want to use several 2.1 Gig SCSI disks, and look into ccd. ccd can be used to stripe several disks together, and also mirror hard disks.

10.4.   Step 3) Select Distributions

A distribution is a collection of files that make up part of the operating system, sort of like separate components that can be added individually. A distribution set is a selection of distributions. Six ``typical'' distribution sets have been prepared to make it easy for new users to select distributions based on the intended use of the system. A list of the distributions installed by each distribution set is included at the end of this chapter.

You also have the option of selecting your own distribution set. Every distribution set includes the bin distribution. The bin distribution contains all the files required to make FreeBSD run. Everything else is optional. You'll notice that the minimal distribution set only installs the bin distribution.

One of the strong points of using an operating system that includes the Source Code is the ability to adjust for special hardware. If you have special hardware, such as a multi-port serial card, or Symmetric Multi-Processors, you will need to be able to re-compile and generate a custom kernel. Installing the kernel source code also allows you to streamline your kernel for optimum performance, by removing unused device drivers.

I would recommend installing the source code for creating a custom kernel. The Developer, X-Developer, and Kern-Developer distribution sets all include the kernel source code.

If you have an SVGA video card and SVGA monitor, I would recommend installing the X Window System binaries. XFree86 is the free version of X Window System for FreeBSD. In order to configure X Window System properly, you need to know the Brand of Video Card, the Refresh rates for your monitor, and what kind of mouse you have.

X-Developer and X-User both include the X-Windows system. I would recommend the X-Developer because it includes the kernel sources also.

After you select one of the distribution sets, it ask you if you want to install the DES encryption components.

If you are outside of North America (USA or Canada) don't install it over the Internet from a North American site. The copy of DES on the CD-ROM is fine. DES technology originating from the US is not exportable, so you'll have to pick an overseas server to install from (which is the logical way to do it anyhow...)

Selecting Custom from the distribution menu allows you to specify which components to install.

This screen also lets you add distributions, or re-install corrupted distributions. If you are adding distributions to an existing system, you probably don't want to select BIN. When installing a new system, I would recommend the following as very necessary: BIN, DOC, MAN, XFree86, and Selected SRC sets.

When you select SRC from the Custom Distribution Menu, it asks you which sets of source code you want to install.

At the very least, I would install SYS, the FreeBSD kernel sources. This will allow you to build your own kernel.

10.5.   Step 4) Format and Configure the Media Type

10.5.1.   Installing from a FreeBSD CD-ROM
10.5.2.   Installing from an FTP Site

10.5.1.   Installing from a FreeBSD CD-ROM

To install from a CD-ROM:

Just stick the CD in to the CD-ROM Drive and sysinstall should find it. As long as your CD-ROM drive is recognized at start up, you should not have problems. Most ATAPI IDE and SCSI CD-ROMs are supported.

The newer installation CD-ROM's for FreeBSD are bootable. If your computer supports booting from a CD-ROM, all you need to do is stick it in the CD-ROM drive and REBOOT the machine.

Pre-FreeBSD-2.2.5 Users:

The IDE/ATAPI CD-ROMs need to be setup as a slave on the Hard drive controller. It will not be recognized properly as a master on the second Hard drive controller This has been fixed in recent FreeBSD releases.

10.5.2.   Installing from an FTP Site

Installing from an FTP site is one of the easiest ways to install FreeBSD. It simplifies things greatly, because all you need is a boot disk and an internet connection.

Just Select a site that is close to where you are and press ENTER.

It is possible to install from a local FTP site that you have prepared. The site must include copies of all the distributions you wish to install. This would be helpful if you are planning to install several times from a slow link to the Internet. The distribution could be downloaded ahead of time and installed as many times as needed from local FTP site. See the section on Preparing Distribution Sets for a list of what to download and where to put it.

To install using FTP, your computer must be configured to reach the FTP site. You can do this a variety of ways.

If FreeBSD has detected a device that it could possibly connect, using FTP, protocols to another machine with, it will list them here. This list includes, Network Cards, COM ports, and parallel ports. If you have installed a Network Card, but it is not listed on this list, FreeBSD did not detect it during start up. You may need to check for the device during boot up, and make sure the IRQ and other address settings are correct.

Once you have selected an interface (Network card, modem, etc...), you will need to give your computer an identity on the network.

You have to give your computer a name. In the host field, enter in the name you have given this computer. This field can be anything of your choosing. It should be unique in your domain. In this example, the computer's name is wiggy. You only need to enter the name, the domain name will automatically get added to the host field as soon as you fill in the domain field. The domain name should be given to you by your ISP. A domain name is unique to a particular site or business. Each computer should have an individual hostname, but a common domain name. Kinda like first and last names in a family.

In the Example, the domain name is foo.com If you are configuring this for the Network or Internet, an IP address, gateway address, and nameserver IP address are also necessary. All of these should be provided to you by your ISP (Internet Service Provider).

The Gateway address in an IP address that TCP/IP uses to know how to get out to the internet. It is the address of the router that acts as a gateway between you and the internet.

The Name Server address is the IP address of the computer that will translate internet names into IP addresses so that TCP/IP protocols can connect using easy to read names. For example, freebsd.org is at IP address 204.216.27.18. However, that is very hard to remember. The DNS (Domain Name Server) will translate that IP address into something readable to us, and vice-versa.

The IP address is your personal IP address that belongs to the machine you are setting up FreeBSD on. The hostname you just gave it will correspond to this IP address. An entry will need to be setup later in your DNS to make this happen. Do not pick a random IP address. Each IP address has to be unique on the internet. Please get this information from your ISP.

The Netmask is an indication of the relationship between the IP address on this machine and the Gateway IP address. Each 255 that appears in the Netmask means that that field is the same in both Gateway and local IP address. The standard Netmask is 255.255.255.0. This netmask tells us that the first three sets of numbers on the IP address match with the first three numbers on the Gateway IP address. 

	IP address:	123.123.123.12
	Gateway:	123.123.123.1
	Netmask:	255.255.255.0

This would be a correct scenario. If the numbers differ in the fields, either the netmask would need to be opened up a bit, or a router would need to be installed between the two sets of numbers. A router would create a reachable gateway. 

	IP address:	123.123.111.12
			        ^^^(These are Different.)
	Gateway:	123.123.123.1
			        ^^^(These are Different.)
	Netmask:	255.255.255.0
			        ^^^(Therefore this mask blocks them.)

This would not be a reachable Gateway. If the Netmask was opened up to 255.255.0.0, then the Gateway would be visable.

You do not need to give any parameters to Extra options to ifconfig.

From here you are ready to start installing the actual files. Just select OK. If you are in the Novice or Express installs, it will move you ahead and ask you if you are sure you want to do this. If you are in a custom install, you have to select Commit from the install Menu

If you experience any difficulties, copy down any error messages you received during the install process and consult the FAQ and handbook for anything relating to that topic. Then search the mailing list archives. If that reveals nothing, consult the people on the questions@freebsd.org mailing list. Be sure to reference the errors you received.

11.   Upgrading FreeBSD Versions

Caution:

Just to be safe, backup all of your data before upgrading a system.

The first thing an upgrade asks you is where to mount your partitions. It is important to label your partitions the same as they were previously. For example, you have a 100M partition named sd0s1f, and a second 100M partition named sd0s1g. The partition sd0s1f is mounted on /home, and sd0s1g is mounted on /var. If during your upgrade, you switched the disklabels on those two partitions, the upgrade would start copying the files that belong in /var on to your users home directories, because they were kept on sd0s1f. So, if you delete, or mis-label, a disk partition, you may lose, or screw up, all information stored on that partition.

When you upgrade from a 2.2.1 or earlier -RELEASE, you will be upgrading to the new rc.conf files by hand.. You will no longer be using the /etc/sysconfig file to configure your server. You will have to convert the information from /etc/sysconfig into /etc/rc.conf.

Note:

Make sure you know where your volumes are currently mounted before you start an upgrade, so you can remount them in the same place

12.   Post install Configuration

During the Post install procedure you get a chance to do a lot of configuration to you system. you can:

13.   Adding Packages

Packages are pre-compiled software that have been assembled for use with FreeBSD. Packages are really just software packages, like you would purchase from a vendor, except they have been packaged by people who work with the FreeBSD project and are available for free. They are the work of people who have either written a software package especially for FreeBSD, or have taken an already existing piece of software and packaged it for installation on FreeBSD. Packages are designed for a specific -RELEASE, in other words, they are compiled on the current version of the operating system and may have unforeseen results if used on an untested version.

Packages are very easy to install. They can be installed several ways.

For more information, see the section on Adding Software

14.   Installing the Ports Collection.

During the install process, it will ask you if you want to install the Ports collection. The Ports collection is a source code distribution of the Package collection. Programs from the Ports collection get compiled for each -RELEASE of FreeBSD and placed in the Package collection. Getting a program from the Ports Collection, instead of the Packages Collection, is kind of like getting an uncooked pizza, it takes more work, but you can pick off the onions if you want.

:
Running FreeBSD

15.  Getting Started With FreeBSD and Unix
16.  Directories And Files
17.  System Control

15.   Getting Started With FreeBSD and Unix

15.1.   User Names and Passwords -- Logging In
15.2.  The SuperUser - root
15.3.  The Unix Environment
15.4.  Changing Passwords
15.5.  Creating/Adding Users
15.6.  Unix System Commands
15.7.  Erase and Kill Characters
15.8.  Shutting down FreeBSD

15.1.   User Names and Passwords -- Logging In

When you boot FreeBSD, you'll see the hardware detection messages scroll by on the screen, followed by some information that indicates what daemons are being started. When everything is said and done, you'll be left with ``The Login Screen''. It will resemble the following:

If you've never used a multi-user operating system before (DOS, Windows, and Macintosh are all single user.) the concept of ``logging in'' will be new to you. FreeBSD is waiting for a login - a login is simply the name that you supply to FreeBSD to identify yourself to the operating system. FreeBSD keeps track of which names are permitted to log in or access the system, and only allows valid users to have access. When you successfully log in, you'll be presented with an interface to the operating system - the Unix Environment covered later in this chapter. Generally login names reflect a person's real name (for example, on my home system my login name is mark on a larger server at the University, my login name is mmayo - to distinguish me from all the other Mark's on the system). Login names must be unique on a particular system.

To gain access to the system, you type in your login name. If you are booting FreeBSD for the first time, the only account that is valid is that of the SuperUser: ``root''. Type root at the Login: prompt and press ENTER If you specified a password for root during the installation you'll be asked for it now; otherwise the system will immediately log you in as root. If you are new to Unix, you would be wise indeed to read the section entitled The SuperUser presented later in this chapter.

Things to remember:

One of the most useful things about FreeBSD is that you can ``log in'' from just about anywhere! FreeBSD uses the notions of ttys - ``terminals'' that can attach to a virtual terminal (ttyv - such as your screen), a pseudo terminal (ttyp - such as a network connections from another Unix or Windows computer), and serial terminals in case you happen to have an old DEC vt100 terminal device lying around :-) Terminals, combined with the concept of logging in make FreeBSD/Unix a dream to administer remotely! Another side-effect of the multi-user ttys is that YOU can be logged into your own system as many times as you want. If you've just started FreeBSD for the first time, then it may not be obvious too you how to get multiple logins going at the same time. It's easy, just hit ALT-F2 to switch to ``virtual console 2'' and you'll see another login screen. By default, FreeBSD ships with 3 virtual consoles (ttyv0-2), reachable with ALT-F1,ALT-F2,ALT-F3. Go ahead and try switching between consoles! Having multiple sessions (logins) going can be extremely useful. For example, say you want to search for the word ``foobar'' in the entire /usr/src source tree! Depending on the speed of your disk and CPU, this could take quite a while - say 2 minutes - so instead of waiting around doing nothing while the command grinds away, you can switch to another console and continue working on whatever you want.

Logging Out!:

Logging Out!

When you're done doing whatever you were doing it's time to log out! You can either type logout or exit. Once you've logged out, you'll see the Login: prompt again, indicating your system is ready for more abuse :-)

Note:

The term ``account'' is synonymous with ``login'' Some people use the phrase account to encapsulate a user's entire set of rights and possessions on the system (his login permissions, files, home directory, mail account, etc.), and use the term login to refer to the user's ``account name'' At any rate, the two terms can be used interchangeably and their exact meaning varies depending on who you talk to :-) For clarity, we will always append ``name'' after account or login to indicate we're only talking about the user's login name...

15.2.   The SuperUser - root

In FreeBSD (and just about all other UNIX systems) the superuser login name is root. No matter how large or small the system may be, if you can login as the user root, the system is wide open for you to do whatever you please. Obviously, letting anyone log in as root is a Bad Thing(tm). Remember, root can do *anything*. Only you should know root's password.

To prevent unauthorized access, the root login should always have a secure password. By default, in FreeBSD, root does not have a password; it's up to you to change it. The trick is picking a good password. It's been known for quite some time that people tend to pick passwords that they can easily remember (we're humans, after all): their birthday, their home town, an item on their desk, and so on. The problem with these passwords is that they are easy to break, either through guessing or by more sophisticated methods of attack.

So picking a ``good'' password is important if your machine will be connected to a network (a LAN, or the Internet). The best passwords combine a mixture of Upper and Lower case characters, as well as numbers. A fine example would be: 34DodgesU, or Beezl891. It's even better if there are no ``real words'' in your password, since one common form of attack is to exhaustively try common combinations of words and numbers against your password entry. Personally, I think a password should be pronounceable, since it minimizes the risk that you might forget it. Try memorizing S8t4WxlT43Dc23HiiU2 and you'll see what I mean...

Finally, perhaps the best approach to password privacy is to never write your password down, and to change it every so often. There are system administrators that change their (and root's) password several times per week. Many people recommend a more reasonable time frame of 2 to 3 months.

Also remember that you should only be the SuperUser while you are performing System Administration tasks. For 'normal' activities, it's always a better idea to do them as a mere mortal since mere mortals can't wipe out the entire operating system so easily.

To ``become'' the SuperUser while you're a normal user, you need the command su. su stands for ``switch user'' and you can use it to su to any other user on the system. If you just type 'su' by itself, it is assumed that you want to su to root - the SuperUser.

Warning:

In FreeBSD, you must be in the wheel group to su to root.

So go ahead and put yourself in there now. If you have no idea what I'm talking about, just wait until we get to the section ``Creating/Adding Users'' and it will all be explained.

15.3.   The Unix Environment

15.3.1.  The SHELL
15.3.2.  The UNIX Philosophy
15.3.3.  Using the TCSH - a walk through a day on the command-line

The Unix environment, for the most part, involves two aspects:

I can't really tell you exactly what the Unix environment is - but I can tell you what most people believe contributes to "it". Really, the Unix environment is just FreeBSD's interface onto itself. Huh? Think of it this way: You need to get things done and the operating system is willing and ready to perform these tasks. However, you need a way to talk to FreeBSD before you can go anywhere. The "Unix Environment" is the collective services, features, and ideologies that represent the interface to the operating system. If you want to work with FreeBSD (or any Unix for that matter), you need to use the Unix environment to get your work done. As we will see, the Unix environment not only ``lets'' us get our jobs done, but influences how we approach and solve problems. I'll talk about this philosophy of design after a brief introduction to ``The Shell'' We will end up this section with a hands on walk through of how to use the shell, and the rest of the Unix Environment.

15.3.1.   The SHELL

The most visible part of the Unix system -- the part that prompts you for commands and appears to do your bidding is the shell. A shell is a user interface: it talks to the Operating System for you and grants each logged in user system resources (like processor time, disk storage, memory, etc.). The primary purposes of the shell are to provide prompting, command interpretation and execution, and error reporting. You tell the shell what you want done by typing in commands after the prompt. It's very similar to the command interpreter under DOS, but infinitely more powerful and functional. Instead of presenting users with "C:>", most Unix shells present you with "$" or "%". Naturally, the prompt can be changed - more on that later!

There are many different Unix "Shells" available. By default, most people will be using the ``C Shell (csh)'' under FreeBSD. You can tell if you are using this shell if your command prompt has an "%" in it. The C Shell is thus called because it is modeled after the C language syntax. For added functionality (including command line editing and an interactive ``history'' mechanism), you can use "tcsh", which has become quite popular and has very similar syntax to csh. Also available are the Bourne Shell (sh) and the Bourne Again Shell (bash). bash is the default on Linux systems, whereas tcsh or csh are generally the defaults on BSD systems. Finally, there is also the Korn Shell (ksh) written at Bell Labs - ksh has become a de facto standard on System V based UNIXes. There is a free implementation called "pdksh" (public domain ksh). Many people consider the tcsh the most feature rich, but that doesn't mean it's right for you. The only way to know for sure is to try them all out and see which one turns your crank. tcsh, bash, and pdksh are all available in the FreeBSD Packages Collection.

Note:

Although you spend most of your time in what's known as the ``interactive shell'', most shells also provide a high-level programming language (scripting language) that is typically used to automate mundane day to day tasks. That being said, Perl is quickly replacing this use of shell languages in many sysadmin circles, and for this reason we will only look at the shell from an interactive stand-point. If you do want to get into shell programming, there are many books available on the subject!

15.3.2.   The UNIX Philosophy

Before we get started with how to maneuver around your system with a shell, we need to get several things out of the way first. When the powers that be created Unix, they had a certain idea, or goal, about how it should work. This is loosely referred to as the "Unix philosophy". It can be summed up in the simple phrase: "Small is beautiful". The philosophy has grown from the UNIX community instead of being forced upon it. According to Mike Gancarz, in ``The UNIX Philosophy'', there are 9 major ``tenets'' of the Unix philosophy. Several are significant to your understanding of how to make the most out of your FreeBSD system:

  1. Small is beautiful

  2. Make each program do one thing well

  3. Make every program a filter

The idea here is that small programs are simple, and therefore easier to understand. A natural side effect is that a program should only do one thing - if you want more than one thing done, you just connect different individual programs to accomplish your task. That's where filters (also referred to as pipelines) come into play. Every program is a filter in the sense that it produces an output given an input. The output of one program can be fed into the input of another program, and vice verse. You will see what I mean once we get to some concrete examples in the next section.

15.3.3.   Using the TCSH - a walk through a day on the command-line

Personally, I use tcsh as my shell, and for this reason we'll focus on this shell in particular as we walk through several examples of how to take full advantage of your shell. tcsh is a modified version of the C Shell (csh). It's fully backward compatible with csh, but it has many new features that make user interaction much easier and more efficient. The biggest areas of improvement are command-line editing, and history navigation. For me, these make life on the command-line much more enjoyable. Everything we'll say about input and output redirection, pipelines, prompts, and job control is identical to the standard csh. If you don't have tcsh installed on your system (just try typing 'tcsh' to find out) then you can add it from the Package Collection.

Pipes and Filters

tcsh provides a mechanism to connect programs together - the filter mentioned above. It is called "the pipe", to represent the directional flow of data "through the pipe". With tcsh, the pipe is represented with the "|" character. Before we can use a pipe, we need to know two UNIX commands: who, and wc. who gives a list of each user that is currently logged onto the system, while wc counts words. Let's say we want to find out how many users are on the system. Here's how you ask: 

vinyl % who | wc -l

8
vinyl %

Whoah! There's quite a bit going on here. First of all, you should recognize that the "vinyl %" is my interactive prompt (I've made a simple modification to the prompt to let me know what machine I'm on - in this case ``vinyl''). It's begging me for commands, and I fed it the command "who | wc -l". The answer was 8. Let's take a closer look at what happened. Normally, the command who by itself would perform like this: 

vinyl % who
mark	ttyp0	Jun 20 18:04	(131.111.238.108)
dlow	ttyp1	Jun  9 10:53	(204.27.111.42)
chrisc	ttyp3	Jun 20 17:46	(208.8.24.42)
gabor	ttyp4	Jun 19 13:10	(206.222.78.163)
.
.
.

vinyl %

Notice that there is one user per line. We want to take this result and do something with it. In this particular case, we want to count the number of lines, which will be the equivalent of counting the number of users currently online! So what we do is ``pipe'' the result of the who command into the wc command. wc sees the output of the who command as its input, and processes it. The final thing to note is that we gave the wc command a "command line option"; the -l part. "-l" simply tells wc to count lines instead of words. The example above demonstrates quite a bit about the UNIX command line. If you're confused, the best way to learn is by picking a few commands and experimenting. One of the most common uses of the pipe on the command line is with the programs "more", or "less". Anytime a program gives an output result that is more than a page long, the best way to view it one page at a time is to pipe the result into more. For example: last | more. This lets me see the output of the command last ( which outputs a list of all the users who have "last" logged onto the system) one page at a time. Quite useful indeed.

Command Completion

Command completion exists in the tcsh to make your life easier. With command completion, the shell is able to determine which files you are interested in on it's own. It will become clear what I mean once you see the following example. Remember the the cd command "changes directories". Lets say you have the following directories and files in the current working directory: 

vinyl % ls -F
News/	bin/	code/	games/	mail/	resume.ascii	test/

If you want to change directories from the current working directory to the test subdirectory, you would enter the command: 

vinyl % cd test

With command completion, you can save on your typing by recognizing that the directory name 'test' is uniquely identified by the its first letter, 't'. So all you need to type is: 

vinyl % cd t<tab>

The <tab> is of course the actual tab key found on your keyboard. When you hit the tab key tcsh will fill in the rest of the filename for you! This can be a real help with longer file names and makes moving around on the command-line much quicker. Instead of the Tab key, and the standard csh uses the ESC key.

Wildcards

Wildcards allow tcsh to match more than one file at a time. It supports the three standard file wildcards supported by pretty much all shells:

The * wildcard can be used to do the same thing as command-completion above. If you entered a command like 

cd t*

and only one subdirectory in the current working directory begins with the letter t, this command would behave the same as if you had used command-line completion by pressing the Tab key. The * matches any number of characters, so in this case it will match anything behind the leading t character, such as 'test' from the example above.

A more common use of wildcards is for working on multiple files however. Often the ls is used as follows: 

vinyl % ls -l *.html

This will show you all the files that end with '.html' -- your web pages. The best way to get a feel for wildcards is to just play around with various combinations. Look at the results and figure out how the command behaved. After a very short period of experimentation I'm sure you will have wildcards mastered!

Command History

All the commands you have recently typed are stored in a file named .history and located in your home directory. The command h will show you a list of the most recent commands you have typed. All the commands are numbered. You can repeat a command by typing an exclamation mark, followed by the command number you wish to execute. For example: !22 would execute the command number 22 from my history list.

Sprucing up TCSH's default behavior

Both csh and tcsh read configuration files when they start - .cshrc and .tcshrc respectively. tcsh will also read the .cshrc file if no .tcshrc file is present. You can customize the behavior of the shell, and set environment variables in the startup files. Remember that you need to use ls -a to see files that start with a period!

Skip ahead to the Sample Configuration section for an example of a typical .tcshrc and .cshrc config file.

15.4.   Changing Passwords

Changing passwords in FreeBSD is quite simple. It is accomplished with the command passwd. When you type in the command you get:

Note that my first two attempts at a new password were not accepted. First, I picked a password that was too small, and then I picked a password that was all lower-case letters. Both passwords are easy to guess or crack, so FreeBSD refused to let me choose such weak passwords. My third attempt was more than 6 characters, and was a mix of upper and lower-case letters - that one worked. After you enter a suitable password you are asked to retype it to make sure you didn't make a mistake. That's it!

If you are root, you can change anyone's password (although you can never learn what someone else's password is) by typing passwd fred (for example). As root, you can also insist on an insecure password by ignoring the warnings. If you're on your home machine, and it's never connected to the Internet, this is probably fine.

The other related command you might want to investigate is chpass. It will let you set things for your login like what shell you want to run, your full name, and what your Office and Home phone numbers are!

Finally, if you ever want to make changes to the password file directly, you use the simple command vipw. Note that this stands for ``vi password'' which implies that you can get around in vi. (In case you were wondering, vi is an excellent text editor that is pretty much the standard on all UNIX Operating Systems - we explain it in full later on in the book.) It's a good idea to see what the password file looks like, and after you're comfortable in vi please try this command out. As with all the FreeBSD password utilities, if you do make a change, vipw automatically rebuilds the password database for you. On newer FreeBSD machines, ee, is the default editor for root. This can be changed by editing the EDITOR variable in your default .cshrc file.

15.5.   Creating/Adding Users

Adding users in FreeBSD is simple, since there is a handy little system command that does all of the work for you: adduser. Adding a user to a system involves setting up a few things, and before we step through the adduser command, it would be best for you to know exactly what has to change on your FreeBSD system for a user to ``exist''

Now that we've seen what FreeBSD needs to know in order to host a user, lets take a look at the program adduser. Adduser checks the passwd, group, and shell databases (which are built from the text files mentioned above) when adding users to make sure everything is valid. Adduser also creates a passwd/group entry for the user, a HOME-directory, dotfiles and sends the new user a welcome message! As you can see, the adduser program does pretty much everything for you, and saves a lot of time compared to the old method of manually setting up an account for a new user.

Adduser is an interactive program, meaning that by default you start it up with no arguments (command-line options) and it asks you questions, which you answer, until it has all the info needed to add the user to your system.

15.6.   Unix System Commands

Start in Late July.

15.7.   Erase and Kill Characters

Start in Late July.

15.8.   Shutting down FreeBSD

FreeBSD is a sophisticated, multi-user, multi-tasking operating system. It's not DOS. You can't simply ``power off'' with the power button on your PC without first telling FreeBSD that you wish to shutdown. If you want to know why, continue reading. Otherwise, just skip ahead to the next paragraph for the necessary commands. When your FreeBSD system is up and running, it goes through a lot of measures to optimize performance. One of the biggest ways to optimize performance is through the use of ``buffers''. When you read or write to the disk, data is moved into and out of buffers. You can think of buffers as buckets. Lets say I have a hose running, and it only reaches so far. Unfortunately, I'm still 5 meters away from my pool, and I need to get water into the pool. Obviously, it's not very efficient for my to take one glass of water at a time from the hose over to the pool. I'd use a bucket - or more precisely, I'd place the bucket under the hose, and when the bucket fills up I'd dump it into the pool. Get it? The FreeBSD equivalent is: it's slow to write to the disk, so I want to minimize the trips I have to make to the disk. So when I'm writing a file, I place the information I need into buffers until I have enough to make it worth while to go and visit that slow old hard-disk. Then I can write everything out at once. Since buffers are stored in RAM, if you just cut the power to your computer, there is a chance that some of the information you thought you wrote to the disk never actually made it there! And that would be crappy. As it turns out, FreeBSD (actually, the filesystem FreeBSD uses) ``syncs'' data from the buffers out to the hard disk every 30 seconds - but even then there is no guarantee that sync will move it to the disk right away. If the system is under low load (a measure of how busy the CPU is - usually very low on a workstation, but it could be quite high on a multi-user server) then it's unlikely that data will be sitting in a buffer for more than a couple of seconds. So, you need to tell FreeBSD to take whatever is sitting buffers and dump it to the disk. Hence, the shutdown command. It slices, it dices, it sync's, and it notifies! What more could you ask for?

To shutdown FreeBSD, you use the shutdown command! Depending on what arguments you give it, it will behave differently. For example:

shutdown -h now Tells FreeBSD to shutdown, halt the CPU, and do it now.

shutdown -r now Tells FreeBSD to shutdown, and then reboot the system. Do it now.

reboot Does the same as shutdown -r now.

When you do the shutdown command, a broadcast message will be sent to all users currently logged in that the system is going down. Instead of ``now'' you could say shutdown -h +5 which will bring the system down in 5 minutes. Every minute FreeBSD will send a broadcast message to all users warning of the impending shutdown. If you just want to kick everyone off, shutdown -k now will do so, and will also prevent anyone else from logging in!

In summary, using the FreeBSD shutdown command is not only the ``safe'' way to stop your system, but also the ``friendly way'' :-)

16.   Directories And Files

16.1.  Reading the Manual Pages
16.2.  The File System
16.3.  Viewing Text Files *
16.4.  Moving Files Around
16.5.  Managing Permissions *
16.6.  Text Editing in System Administration: vi
16.7.  IN-DEPTH VI.HELP

Start in Late July.

16.1.   Reading the Manual Pages

The FreeBSD manual pages (or manpages as they are usually called) describe nearly every user command, administrative command, library call, and file format used on the system, plus some other informative tidbits (like a built-in ASCII table). Each page includes a summary, lists all the options available with the command, and generally goes into detail about the command and refers you to related pages.

Man page information is only available on actual commands, not to aliases you set up in your .cshrc file.

To access the Manual Pages, type in man command at the Unix Command Prompt with out the quotes. Substitute the word ``command'' with the command that you are interested in learning about. For Example:

/usr/home/chris> man ls

The above command will generate a manual page explaining the use ofls. While you are viewing the man page, you can control the screen the same way you would control a more session.

Pressing these keys will result in the following:

Note:

In order to access the online man pages, you must have the man distribution installed on your system.

man searches all the directories specified in the MANPATH environment variable to find the page you requested.

You can adjust the MANPATH search string to include custom man page directories so you can add your own man pages. Man Pages are divided up in to Nine sections. The first of these contains all of the user commands.

Almost every install option in the FreeBSD sysinstall includes the manual pages. So unless you have selected the custom install and didn't choose the man pages, you should have access to them on your system

16.2.   The File System

When you are new to UNIX, especially when converting from a non-UNIX operating system like DOS or MacOS, figuring out which commands do what you want can be very frustrating. Most of the help features built in to UNIX are designed to help you figure out how to fully use a command AFTER you have discovered it.

One of the first commands that you have to learn is ls ls is a command to ``list'' or display all of the files that are present in your current path. In order to comprehend all the things that ls can show us, we need to first understand how UNIX treats files.

There four main types of files:

Regular files include programs, data files, pictures, binary executables, etc... These account for almost all of the files that will exist on your system.

Directories are files that allow you to contain other files in them. On windows and the Mac systems they are called "folders." All regular files are contained inside a directory. Directories can be contained in side of other directories, these are called sub-directories. Dos users will notice that the directory separator in UNIX is the opposite direction from that in DOS. For more information on directories see the man pages on pwd cd mkdir and rmdir

Devices are accessed through special files that are contained in the /dev directory. These files allow you to control various parts of the computer, such as your modem or floppy disk. Device drivers access these files to give instructions to things like your mouse or sound card.

Also reference the man pages for: MAKEDEV, mknod, and

Link files are a lot like pointers in C. Links come in two types: real links and symbolic links. Real links are actually another name for the file. A real link has a few limitations, it can't be linked to a directory and it must exist on the same physical disk and disk partition. However symbolic links, or symlinks as some people call them, don't have this limitation. A link to a file allows you to move the file from it's original place, and still allow programs that depend on it to find it. A Symlink can be thought of as a shortcut to a file. ``Shortcuts'' in Win95 work exactly the same way. Deleting the symlink doesn't delete the actual file, just the shortcut to it. For more information on links, see the man page for ln

Every file has certain properties. These consist of: 

X|Kind of File|
v|Read Write|X|Number of Links|
v|Execute   |v|     |       |        |     |   |time|         |
v|permission|v|Owner| Group |  Size  |month|day|year|File Name|
crw-rw-rw-   1 root   wheel    	2,  12 Aug  28  1996 zero
brw-r-----   1 root   operator  0,   7 Aug  28  1996 wd0h
brw-r-----   1 root   operator  0, 146 Aug  28  1996 wd0s3
brw-r-----   1 root   operator  0, 682 Aug  28  1996 wd0s4
-r-xr-xr-x   1 bin    bin   	45056  Feb  28 04:05 cat
-r-xr-xr-x   1 bin    bin   	53248  Feb  28 04:05 chmod
-rw-rw-r--   1 chrisc bsdbook    416   Mar  24 23:09 .cshrc
-rw-rw-r--   1 chrisc bsdbook    420   Mar  24 23:09 .login
-rw-rw-r--   1 chrisc bsdbook      0   Mar  10 13:38 help
drwx------   2 chrisc bsdbook    512   Apr   3 01:46 mail
drwxrwxr-x   5 chrisc bsdbook    512   Mar  24 23:22 public_html
lrwxr-xr-x   1 root   wheel  	 11    Mar  23 22:56 sys -> usr/src/sys

Files that begin with a ``.'' are hidden files, and are not usually displayed by ls and by default they are not acted upon by most other programs.

There are two special files that exist in every directory: . and .. these refer to the ``current'' and ``previous'' directories respectively.

16.3.   Viewing Text Files *

16.3.1.  CAT:
16.3.2.  MORE:
16.3.3.  TAIL:
16.3.4.  HEAD:

Most of the work you do as a system administrator involves text files. Either you are checking a config file, or viewing a log file. To accomplish the job of displaying text files, Unix provides several different tools.

16.3.1.   CAT:

cat is short for concatenate. If you don't redirect it elsewhere, cat will display a file to the standard output, namely the monitor you are looking at. cat displays the file as fast as possible, and will not stop for page breaks. For Example:

cat myfile

will display the contents of ``myfile'' to the screen. However, if that file happens to be a non-text file, such as a binary file, you would see all of the binary escape codes; it might not be a pretty sight.

If more than one filename is specified, cat will display them one after the other, in order, without pausing, as though they were one file. By using the redirection operator > you can concatenate two or more files together and create a third file that contains all the information from the other files.

For example:

cat file1 file2 file3 > file4

In this example, file4 would contain all the information from files 1,2, and 3. It would not matter if this was a text file or a binary file, because the information would never be shown to the screen.

16.3.2.   MORE:

But what if while we are using cat we have a file that is too long to fit on one screen, and we really want to read what it says as it scrolls past us at sub-light speed. Over the years people have come up with several programs to make the display pause for page breaks and let us read the page before showing us a new one. One of the first and more popular ways is more Two other commands, less and page have recently become popular. Currently, less is just a hacked version of more Fundamentally more works just like cat except more pauses for page breaks and prompts you to press a key before it continues. However, it isn't always easy to tell which key to press, because it doesn't tell you. It just sits there with a ``stdin'' in the lower left hand corner. It assumes that we have read the man page, and know that ``stdin'' stands for ``standard input device'' ie. the Keyboard. It is waiting for us to press the SPACE BAR to go one page forward, the ENTER key to go one line forward, b to go back a page, or q to quit out of it.

By using the pipe operator | we can route all the information through more and make any program that is displaying text to the screen slow down and pause at page breaks. For example, a ls -lR / will display all the files in our computer. This would be very hard to read, and we wouldn't get much out of it. But if we do a ls -lR / | more this will show us the directory listings one page at a time and also allow us to stop by pressing q

16.3.3.   TAIL:

Sometimes, however, we have a real long file and we are only concerned with the last page of information. It would be silly to use cat or more and wait all the way through 1500 pages of text just to see the last page. Log files are a prime example of a situation like this. For example, you are checking the log for the web server and you want to see who the last few visitors are, or you want to check the last couple of messages in /var/log/messages. In situations like these, it is a good idea to use tail.

If we wanted to see the last messages in /var/log/messages, type:

tail /var/log/messages

The last page of the message file will be displayed on your screen.

16.3.4.   HEAD:

head works just like tail except it show only the first page full.

Also reference the man pages for: more less head page tail cat

For more information on these commands, see the man pages for: more, less, head, page, tail, and cat

16.4.   Moving Files Around

Files, they seem to be everywhere; in FreeBSD this is very true. Except they never seem to be where you want them. There are basically three things that you can do with files: Create them, Use them, and Remove them. The rest of the time is spent moving them around from place to place in your file system. To move files around in a file system, you have to have places to move them to and from. These places are called directories. Directories are really files that contain other files. Files can be placed inside a directory and moved from one directory to another.

Directories can be placed inside each other. A directory contained inside of another directory is called a ``sub-directory''.

To move a file or directory, we need to use the mv. mv requires that you have at least to parameters when moving files. (Some people call these ``arguments''.)

The first parameter is the source file, or the name of the file you want to move. The second parameter is the destination, or the place you want to move the file to. If you specify a directory as the destination, it will place that file in the directory specified. If you give it a file name as the destination, it will rename your file. If you move a directory using mv, it will rename the directory.

For Example:

mv /usr/local/junk.html /usr/local/www/ mv /usr/local/html /usr/local/www mv /usr/local/junk.html /usr/local/www/index.html mv /usr/local/junk.html /usr/local/www/ mv junk.html junk.htm mv /usr/local/html/* /usr/local/www/

16.5.   Managing Permissions *

Security is a big issue in today's ``anyone-can-access-your-site'' Internet environment. For the new-to UNIX user and even system administrator, keeping access permissions set properly on files can be a major chore.

Permissions to a file allow a user to read, write, or execute a particular file based on whether he is the owner of the file, a member of the group that owns the file, or an ordinary user that is trying to use the file. UNIX lets you set the accessibility permissions for each of the three categories. Individual file permissions are set with the command chmod. The command umask is used to set the default permissions that a file gets when it is created. chmod and umask use a number and column scheme to represent the particular permissions and the category that they apply to.

There are four columns and four numbers (if you count zero). The columns represent the categories that the permissions apply to and the numbers are the read and write permissions.

The Columns:

	|column1 | column2 | column3 | column4|
	|Special | Owner   | Group   | Others |

The Numbers:
	In Column 1 only: 4 |Set User ID On Execution.
			  2 |Set Group ID On Execution.
			  1 |Set the Sticky Bit.
			  0 |Remove all Special options

	In Columns 2-4	  4 |Grant Read Permissions
			  2 |Grant Write Permissions
			  1 |Grant Execute Permissions
			  0 |Remove all permissions from column

If you specify less than four digits when setting permissions it will assume that you are starting from column 4 and work backwards, in other words chmod 22 file will set the read permissions of file to ``write'' for group and others. chmod 24 file and chmod 0024 file are exactly the same. This however will remove all permissions from the user, a better one to use would be chmod 644 file for standard files and chmod 755 file for executable files. You can have no more than 4 digits, each corresponding to a column.

You can set both read and write permissions to a column by adding the numbers together. Write(2) + Read(4) = Both Read and Write(6). Therefore to set read and write permissions to ``Owner'', ``Group'', and ``Others''; you would use chmod 666 file

The file ``bsd.gif'' has been set to mode 664 using the command chmod 664 bsd.gif

An ls -l will display the permissions of all the files in the current directory.

>ls -l

total 21
drwxr-xr-x  2 chrisc  bsdbook   512 Mar 21 00:50 articles
-rw-rw-r--  1 chrisc  bsdbook   926 Mar 21 16:01 blueball.gif
-rw-r--r--  1 chrisc  bsdbook  1901 Mar 21 23:50 book.html
-rw-rw-r--  1 chrisc  bsdbook  7100 Mar 21 15:57 botbar_raw.gif
-rw-rw-r--  1 chrisc  bsdbook  2088 Mar 21 15:57 bsd.gif
drwxrwxr-x  3 chrisc  bsdbook   512 Mar 22 00:02 cgi-bin
drwxrwxr-x  2 chrisc  bsdbook  2560 Mar 21 15:50 docs
-rw-rw-r--  1 chrisc  bsdbook     0 Mar 22 00:15 file
-rw-rw-r--  1 chrisc  bsdbook  2865 Mar 21 15:47 umask.sgml
^^^^^^^^^^ These are the permissions.

The 'd' tells us which files are directories. Directories must have execute permissions enabled in order for a user to change directories to it. A '-' in the first field signifies an ordinary file, in the other fields it signifies a lack of permissions, or a permissions of '0'.

When a file is created the default permissions are set at 666. Umask does just the opposite job of chmod. It removes permissions from the default values at creation time based on the number and column scheme. Therefore to have your files set to read and write by ``Owner'', but read only by ``Group'' and ``Others'', you would use a umask of 22. The Line

umask 22

can be put in your .login file and automatically set every time you login. 

	The Default Permissions:  	666
	Your Umask Values:		 22
				       ____
	Your New Default Permissions:   644

Now every time you create a file it will have the New Default permissions. A umask of 66 would give you Default permissions of 600, giving only the owner read and write access to the file. chmod can also modify permissions to files using a ``first letter'' short notation. This style of using chmod works exactly the same as the Column and Number Scheme. However, it is easier for new users to remember and use. Consequently it gets a lot of use in everyday tasks, while the Column and Number Scheme gets a lot of use by programs and scripting languages.

	Permissions Types:
		r	Read
		w	Write
		x	Execute

	Affected Area: (column)
		u	User
		g	Group
		o	Others
		a	All

	Method Affected:
		+	Add to
		- 	Remove from
		=	Set equal to

To add execute permissions to all areas of the file ``bsd.gif'', you would use chmod a+x bsd.gif

To remove read permissions from ``Others'' use chmod o-r bsd.gif.

Now you can control the initial permissions of files and modify those permissions later to suit your needs.

16.6.   Text Editing in System Administration: vi

16.6.1.  CURSOR MOVEMENT:
16.6.2.  TEXT ENTRY MODE:
16.6.3.  Cut N Paste:
16.6.4.  Special:
16.6.5.  EX MODE or ``:'' COMMANDS:
16.6.6.  Numbers:

In FreeBSD there are several text editors available; one of the most powerful and common is vi. However, to people who haven't grown up using it, learning vi may appear to be the hardest part of System Administration. Used properly, vi is one of the best tools for System Administration. When learning vi the first thing that must be understood is that vi is not a word processor. It is a text editor designed to edit the configuration files that are used by the system; at this job it excels and is (in my opinion) easy to use.

The biggest problem is that vi doesn't even pretend to be user-friendly. If you don't know how to use it, there is absolutely nothing to tell you which key to press to accomplish the required task. Generally, all it does is beep at you. To the advanced user, the lack of help menus is a "feature" not a draw-back, because the screen is not cluttered with unused help features.

Because of the lack of help features in vi, and the difficulties most people have learning it, other text editors have been created. One of those is vim, or ``vi improved''. vim has taken all of the functionality of vi and made it easier to use.

A program named pico from the University of Washington, is a very easy to use text editor. It provides a lot of help features and opens automatically into ``text entry mode''. FreeBSD now ships with the ee editor as the Default. It is very easy to use, but cluttered with help screens.

Unlike most other editors, vi has three modes: Command Mode, Text Entry Mode and EX mode. In Command Mode, each key you press is part of a command. Cursor movement, deleting lines, searching, and such are done in command mode. When you start vi, it starts you out in Command Mode and you have to Enter the correct keys to get to Data Entry Mode.

From Data Entry Mode you can enter text just as you would in a normal text editor. There are several commands to start Text Entry Mode, revolving around what you want to happen prior to entering the text. You will remain in Text Entry Mode until you press the ESC key, which will return you to Command Mode. To start a new document, type vi from the command line followed by the name of the file you wish to create. This will put you into a clean document, provided you have not named an already existing file, and start you off in Command Mode. Now any key entered will be interpreted as a command and vi will promptly beep at you if you press the wrong one. At this point press a to begin entering text. Now enter in several lines of text; if you don't press return, vi will treat this all as one line, with no word wrapping. This is an important feature of vi in System Administration. Some configuration files require that certain lines all be entered on one line.

vi will also show you all the escape characters contained in the text. This is a very helpful feature if you are working with special file formats. Editors like pico will often not display special characters. They will sometimes even remove them.

16.6.1.   CURSOR MOVEMENT:

Press the ESC key to return to Command mode. Use the h and l keys to move the cursor left and right. In vi all the commands are case sensitive. The following commands will move the cursor in various ways.

h One Space Left.

l One Space right.

j One Line Down.

k One Line UP.

w Forward/Right One Word.

b Back/Left One Word.

G Goto Bottom of Document.

Many of the other commands can be combined with these motion commands.

16.6.2.   TEXT ENTRY MODE:

Now position your Cursor at the end of a word and press a. The cursor moved one space forward and is allowing you to append text after that word. Press the ESC key and return to Command Mode. Position your cursor at the end of the same word. This time press i and type some characters. The letters were inserted in front of the cursor position. The following command will allow you to enter Text Entry Mode in various ways.

a Append after the cursor position.

A Append at the End of the Line.

i Insert before the cursor position.

I Append at the Beginning of the Line.

o Open a new line Below the cursor.

O Open a new line Above the cursor.

16.6.3.   Cut N Paste:

y Copies or "Yanks" a line *

d Deletes *

c Changes *

p Pastes Below Cursor

P Pastes Above Cursor

* Note:

These need to be mixed with motion commands to make these effective. Pressing the same key affects the current line. (ie. yy yank current line)

Position your cursor on a line with text on it and press dd This will delete the current line and save it to a temporary buffer. you can restore it by pressing p.

16.6.4.   Special:

/ Search

n Find the next match.

. Repeat last Command

u Undo/Redo

The search, repeat, and ``find next'' commands allow you to do a search-and-replace in a very controlled manner. For example, you have a document that has the word me in it several times. You want to change it to the word ``you'' To do this you would search for ``me'' by typing /me. Your cursor will jump to the nearest word containing me. Then type cwyou and press the ESC key. This will change the word to you. Now you are set up to search for and replace all the other ``me'' words in the document. To find the next occurance of ``me'' press n to change it to ``you'' press .; if you don't want to change it, press n to go on to the next.

/me will match any word containing me, words like: reames,mess, and mean. Use /\ me\ to find only the word me.

16.6.5.   EX MODE or ``:'' COMMANDS:

w < filename > Write the file

q Quit vi

w! < filename > Over Write an existing file/force write

q! Quit without saving/force quit

r < filename > read in a file

!ls execute the shell command ls

123 goto line 123

When you press the : key, a : will appear in the lower left hand corner of the screen. This is a prompt that will accept a limited number of commands. It will let you execute shell commands, read in files, or quit vi. When you are done with vi, press :wq and you will save your file and quit out of vi.

To read in or write to a file, you need to supply a file name. If you supplied a file name when starting vi, it will use it by default. Giving a filename at this point would override the one you supplied at startup.

16.6.6.   Numbers:

In command mode, if you enter a number, it will repeat the next command that many times. For example, if you are deleting lines, typing 10dd will delete 10 lines. Motion commands may be used also; 10dk will delete 11 lines above and including the one the cursor is on.

16.7.   IN-DEPTH VI.HELP

16.7.1.  Introduction
16.7.2.  (Part I/a) An explanation of the syntax of vi commands.
16.7.3.  (Part I/b)Quick help and covers some of the important(in my mind) vi
16.7.4.  (Part I/c) a listing of all the vi commands and their function.
16.7.5.  (part II/a) The syntax of how addresses work in ex. commands
16.7.6.  (part II/b)A quick list of almost all of ex commands and their abbreviations.
16.7.7.  (Part II/c) A listing of almost all of the standard ex commands and their function.
16.7.8.  (part III)A quick explanation of regular expressions as they are used in vi/ex.

In-depth help for learning the vi editor.

16.7.1.   Introduction

vi has basically three modes,
1) command or normal mode,
2) insert or input or append mode
3) ex or command-line mode.
vi starts in command mode where you can issue commands, move and/or
cut/copy text. The : (colon) puts you in ex mode where you can use powerful
ex commands like g, s, v, ! etc. certain commands will put you in insert
mode, eg. i, I, a, A, o, O. When in insert mode you can type in text. R
will put you in a special case of insert mode, that is overwrite mode ^[
(escape key) will put you in command mode.

16.7.2.   (Part I/a) An explanation of the syntax of vi commands.

SYNTAX OF VI COMMANDS 

most commands in vi have the following form ( exceptions are : m, M, n, N,
p, P, u, U )
[n] operator
eg.
5x      delete 5 characters
3ANO!   will insert NO! three times at the end of the line if you hit ESC
        after typing the !
2fa     forward to second a on line
3Tc     backward to after the third c
20j     move cursor down 20 lines
5H      move cursor 5 lines from top of screen
5rx     replace next 5 characters with x
5$      move to end of 5th line down (line 1 is current)
3_      move to first non-blank character 3 lines up (line 1 is current)
editing commands(c,d,y,>,<,!) have the following general form
[n] operator [m] object
an object in vi would be a character or a word or a line or a sentence etc.
basic operators for editing are
c       begin a change
d       begin a delete
y       begin a yank
if the current line is the object of the operator then the object is the
same as the operator: cc, dd, yy.
if both n an m are specified the effect is n * m, that is n times m.
eg.
cw      change word
c2W     change next two WORDS (includes punctuation) (could also be 2cW)
2cc     change two lines
c$      change to end of line
c)      change to end of sentence
5dd     delete next five lines
d5G     delete to line 5
dG      delete to end of file
de      delete to end of word
d^      delete to beginning of line
d30|    delete to column 30 on line
yy      yank current line
y'z     yank to line marked with z
y]]     yank up to next section
yL      yank to bottom of screen
y2fq    yank to second q on line forward

commands in vi are not echoed to the screen except the following:
/       search forward for pattern
?       search backward for pattern
:       invoke an ex command
!       invoke a unix (OS) command that takes as its input an object in the
        buffer and replaces it with output from the command
        eg. 1G!Gsort -fd
the above commands are completed by pressing the return key
a buffer in vi would refer to the file as it's kept in memory

<, >, and ! can also be combined with a movement command like c, d, and y
>>      indent current line one shiftwidth
5<<     outdent 5 lines starting with current
>>%     indent to matching parentheses
!Gsort -fd  sort from current line to end of file

16.7.3.   (Part I/b)Quick help and covers some of the important(in my mind) vi

QUICK HELP ( commands and command combinations to get you statrted in vi ) 

MOVEMENT
Character:
h       cursor left
j       cursor down
k       cursor up
l       cursor right
space   cursor right

Line:
[n]G    to line n
0, $    first, last position on line
+, -    first character on next, previous line
^, _    first character on current line (other than tab or space)

Screen:
^F, ^B  scroll forward, backward one screen
^D, ^U  scroll forward, backward half screen
^E, ^Y  show one more line at bottom, top of screen

Marking position:
mx      mark current position with x
`x      move cursor to mark x
'x      move cursor to first non-whitespace character containing mark x

Miscellaneous movement:
fa      forward to character a
Fd      backward to character d
tg      forward to character before g
Tw      backward to character after w
w       beginning of next word
W       beginning of next WORD (punctuation is part of word)
b       back one word
B       back one WORD (punctuation is part of word)
e       end of word
E       end of WORD (punctuation is part of word)
zENTER    position line with cursor at top of screen
z.          position line with cursor at middle of screen
z-          position line with cursor at bottom of screen
), (    next, previous sentence
]], [[  next, previous section
}, {    next, previous paragraph
( the above will depend on your settings for what constitutes a "section"
and "paragraph" )

EDITING TEXT:
Inserting text:
a       append after cursor
A       append at end of line (same as $a)
i       insert before cursor
I       insert at beginning of line (same as _i)
o       open line below cursor
O       open line above cursor
^[      terminate insert mode (escape)

Deleting and changing text:
cw      change word
C       change line starting with current character (same as c$)
cc      change current line
2cc     change 2 lines
dH      delete to top of screen
dd      delete current line
dj      delete current line and one below it
d/pat   delete to pat(tern)
d`z     delete to character marked with z
d'z     delete to line marked with z
de      delete to end of word
d%      delete to matching bracket
P       put text previously yanked or deleted before/above cursor
p       put text previously yanked or deleted after/below cursor
4s      substitute 4 characters
S       substitute entire line
u       undo last change
.       repeat last change
~       reverse case
11~     reverse case of next 11 characters (on current line)

Copying and moving:
yy      copy current line to (unnamed) buffer
"xyy    copy current line to buffer x
"xp     put contents of buffer x below cursor
ye      yank to end of word
"xyG    yank from current line to end of file into buffer x
y2k     yank current line and two above it
y'x     yank to line with mark x
y`x     yank to character with mark x
3>>     indent next three lines one shiftwidth
>>34G   indent current line to line 34 one shiftwidth

Save and exit:
:x          quit vi, write file if changes were made
:w file     save copy to file
:w >> file  append copy to file
:q!         quit vi, do not save changes
:e!         return to file before changes were made, after last write
:e#         edit alternate file

Interacting with OS:
:!command       run command
:r file         read in contents of file after cursor
:r !command     read in output of command after cursor
:n,m! command   run command on lines in file from n to m and replace with output
!object command     send buffer object to command, replace with output (eg.
        !G sort -fd    will sort from the current line to end of file)
ncommand        send n lines to command, replace with output

16.7.4.   (Part I/c) a listing of all the vi commands and their function.

VI COMMAND KEYS IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER 

( ^A  stands for control-a  ^i  stands for 
-i )

a       append after cursor (can be preceded by a number)
A       append at end of line (same as $a) (can be preceded by a number)
^A      unused
b       back up one word (can be preceded by a number)
B       back up one WORD (including punctuation) (can be preceded by a number)
^B      scroll up one screen (can be preceded by a number)
c       begin a change (combine with movement command) 
        (can be preceded by a number)
C       change line from cursor to end of line (same as c$) 
        (can be preceded by a number)
^C      unused; in insert > end insert mode
d       begin a delete (combine with movement command) 
        (can be preceded by a number)
D       delete from cursor to end of line (same as d$)
        (can be preceded by a number)
^D      scroll down a half screen  (can be preceded by a number); 
        in insert > back up on shiftwidth
e       goto end of word (can be preceded by a number)
E       goto end of WORD (including punctuation) (can be preceded by a number)
^E      show one more line at bottom of screen (can be preceded by a number)
f       forward to next typed character (can be preceded by a number)
F       backward to next typed character (can be preceded by a number)
^F      scroll down one screen (can be preceded by a number)
g       unused
G       goto specified line or end of file (can be preceded by a number)
^G      print file info on status line (bottom of screen)
h       cursor left (can be preceded by a number)
H       goto top of screen (can be preceded by a number)
^H      left cursor; in insert > backspace
i       insert before cursor (can be preceded by a number)
I       insert at beginning of line (same as _i)
        (can be preceded by a number)
^I      unused; in insert > tab key
j       cursor down (can be preceded by a number)
J       join two lines (can be preceded by a number)
^J      down arrow cursor key; in insert > same as enter
k       cursor up (can be preceded by a number)
K       unused
^K      unused
l       cursor right (can be preceded by a number)
L       goto bottom of screen (can be preceded by a number)
^L      redraw screen usually
m       mark current cursor position with character typed (a-z)
M       goto middle of screen
^M      to beginning of next line (can be preceded by a number);
        in insert > same as enter key
n       repeat last search command
N       repeat last search command in reverse direction
^N      down arrow cursor key
o       open a new line below the cursor (can be preceded by a number)
O       open a new line above the cursor (can be preceded by a number)
^O      unused
p       put yanked or deleted text after or below cursor
P       put yanked or deleted text before or above cursor
^P      up arrow cursor key
q       unused
Q       quit vi, invoke ex (not very useful) return with vi
^Q      unused (some terminals, stop data flow)
r       change character under cursor to character typed 
        (can be preceded by a number)
R       replace characters (overwrite mode) (can be preceded by a number)
^R      redraw screen usually
s       substitute characters under cursor to ones typed 
        (can be preceded by a number)
S       change entire line (can be preceded by a number)
^S      unused (on some terminals, resume data flow)
t       forward to before next character typed (can be preceded by a number)
T       backward to after next character typed (can be preceded by a number)
^T      goto previous tag; in insert > move right one shiftwidth
u       undo last change
U       restore current line
^U      scroll screen up a half screen (can be preceded by a number);
        in insert > delete back to start of insert (depends on terminal
        settings)
v       unused
V       unused
^V      unused; in insert > quote next character
w       forward one word (can be preceded by a number)       
W       forward one WORD (including punctuation) (can be preceded by a number)
^W      unused; in insert > back up to beginning of word (depends on
        terminal settings)
x       delete character under cursor (can be preceded by a number)
X       delete back one character (can be preceded by a number)
^X      unused
y       begin a yank (combine with movement command) 
        (can be preceded by a number)
Y       yank current line (same as yy) (map it to y$ to be consistent with
        D and C) (can be preceded by a number)
^Y      show one more line at top of screen (can be preceded by a number)
zENTER    reposition line with cursor to top of screen
z.          reposition line with cursor to middle of screen
z-          reposition line with cursor to bottom of screen
        (the three z commands above can be preceded by a number)
ZZ      quit vi, write file if changes were made
^Z      suspend vi on systems that have job control (depends on terminal
        settings)

^@      unused
^[      terminate insert mode (escape key)
^\      I don't think it does anything
^]      goto tag under cursor
^^      edit alternate file
^_      unused?
^?      unused? delete key?

space   cursor right (can be preceded by a number)
!       filter program through external filter, requires an object to work on
        (combine with movement command) (press enter to execute)
"       use register for next delete, yank or put, registers are (a-zA-Z0-9)
#       unused?
$       goto end of line (can be preceded by a number)
%       goto matching bracket () [] {}
&       repeat last substitute
'       to first non-blank character on line with mark (a-z)
(       beginning of next sentence
)       beginning of current sentence (sentence is delimited by ., !, ? and
        followed by at least one space)
*       unused
+       down one line to first non-blank character (j_)
        (can be preceded by a number)
,       repeat f, F, t, T commands in reverse direction
-       up one line to first non-blank character (k_) 
        (can be preceded by a number)
.       repeat previous command
/       search forward for text entered (repeat previous search if no
        argument supplied) (press enter to execute)
0       goto beginning of line
:       enter an ex command (press enter to execute)
;       repeat f, F, t, T commands
<       begin a shift left (combine with movement command) 
        (can be preceded by a number)
=       unused (unless in lisp mode in which case it formats to standard
        lisp formatting)
>       begin a shift right (combine with movement command) 
        (can be preceded by a number)
?       search backward for text entered (repeat previous search backward
        if no argument supplied) (press enter to execute)
@       execute a register (0-9a-z".)
[[      beginning of current section (as delimited by the sect= option)
\       unused
]]      beginning of next section (as delimited by the sect= option)
^       goto first non-blank character on line
_       goto first non-blank character on line (can be preceded by a number)
`       goto mark (a-z)
{       beginning of current paragraph (as delimited by a blank line or the
        p= option)
n|      column n of current line
}       beginning of next paragraph (as delimited by a blank line or the
        p= option)
~       change case of character under cursor (can be preceded by a number)

16.7.5.   (part II/a) The syntax of how addresses work in ex. commands

EX EDITOR 
address symbols
0       beginning of file
$       end of file
1,$     all lines in file
%       stands for filename, hence it means the entire file (1,$)
#       stands for alternate file
x,y     lines x through y
x;y     lines x through y, current line reset to x
.       current line
n       absolute line number n
x-n     n lines before x
x+n     n lines after x
+[n]    n lines ahead (default is one)
-[n]    n lines back (default is one)
'x      line marked with x
''      previous mark
/pattern/   forward to line matching pattern
?pattern?   backward to line matching pattern

16.7.6.   (part II/b)A quick list of almost all of ex commands and their abbreviations.

QUICK LIST OF EX COMMANDS AND THEIR ABBREVIATIONS
| abbreviate   ab       | move         m       | tag                ta    |
| append       a        | next         n       | unabbreviate       una   |
| args         ar       | number       # nu    | undo               u     |
| change       c        | open         o       | unmap              unm   |
| chdir        cd chd   | preserve     pre     | version            ve    |
| copy         t co     | print        p       | visual             vi    |
| delete       d        | put          pu      | write              w     |
| edit         e        | quit         q       | xit                x     |
| file         f        | read         r       | yank               ya    |
| global       g v      | recover      rec     | (window)           z     |
| insert       i        | rewind       rew     | (escape to OS)     !     |
| join         j        | set          se      | (lshift)           <     |
| list         l        | shell        sh      | (rshift)           >     |
| map                   | source       so      | (line number)      =     |
| mark         k ma     | substitute   s & ~   | (execute buffer)   * @   |

16.7.7.   (Part II/c) A listing of almost all of the standard ex commands and their function.

EX COMMANDS 
( anything in [] is optional , anything in {} is the rest of the name of
the command which is also optional )
the default for address is the current line, except for g, g!, v, w; for
these the default is the entire file


ab{breviate} [string text]
    define string when typed to be translated into text.
    if string and text not specified - list all abbreviations
    abbreviations are usually put into your .exrc file
    eg. :ab Xvi vi is the best editor
        :ab character character
        :ab the the
        :ab have have

[address]a{ppend}[!]
text
.
    append text at address. ! switches autoindent.

ar{gs}
    print filename arguments.

cd [path]
    without path change to home directory, with path change to path

[address]c{hange}[!]
text
.
    replace lines with text. ! switches autoindent.

[address]co{py}destination
    copy lines from address to destination.
    eg. :1,10co50      copy lines 1 to to 10 to below line 50

[address]d{elete} [buffer][count]
    delete lines in address if buffer is specified save lines to buffer.
    count specifies the number of lines to delete starting with address.
    eg. :/include/,/main/d      delete lines between include and main
                                including include and main
        :/include/+,/main/-d    as above but not including include nor main
        :3d     delete line 3
        :d3     delete 3 lines starting with current
        :.,$d a delete to end of file from current line into buffer a
        :d a3   delete next three lines starting with current into buffer a

e{dit}[!] [+n] [file]
    begin editing file. ! will discard changes to current file.
    n specifies line to begin editing file (default 1).
    eg. :e file     edit file
        :e #        edit previous file

f{ile} [filename]
    change name of file to filename. without argument print current
    filename.
    eg. :f %.new    appends .new to current filename, renaming file to
                    file.new

[address]g{lobal}[!]/pattern/[commands]
    execute commands on lines that contain pattern, if address is specified
    within the address range. ! execute on lines not containing pattern.
    without commands print matching lines.
    eg. :g/\#include/d      delete all lines that have include directives
        :g!/\#define/p      print lines that are not define statements
        :g/^\/\*/p          print lines that start with /*
        :g/^[ ^I]*$/d       delete empty lines as well as lines with only tabs
                            or spaces
        :g/strcmp/d5        delete lines that have strcmp in them as well
                            as the following 4 lines

[address]i{nsert}[!]
text
.
    insert text at line before address. ! switches autoindent.

[address]j{oin}[!][count]
    join lines in specified range. ! preserves white space. 
    eg. :1,5j!     join lines 1 to 5, preserve white space

[address]k char
    synonymn for mark, character can follow k with no intervening space.

[address]l{ist}[count]
    print lines so that tabs show as ^I and end of lines are marked with $.

map[!] [char commands]
    define a keyboard macro for named char that is a synonymn for commands.
    !  will create a mapping for input mode. with no arguments print mapped
    keys.
    eg. :map ^N :n^M    (to get a control character type ^V followed by the
                        control character)

[address]ma{rk} char
    mark lines with char. char is a single lowercase letter.
    eg. :ma z   mark line with z
        :'z     return to line with mark z

[address]m{ove} destination
    move lines specified by address to destination.
    eg. :.,/include/m /string/  move lines from current to include line below
                                line with string

n{ext}[!] [[+commands] filelist]
    edit next file from argument list. if filelist is provided, replace
    argument list with filelist. ! will discard changes to current file.

[address]nu{umber}[count]
    print lines specified by address, precede each line by its line number.
    count specifies the number of lines to print.

[address]o{pen}[/pattern/]
    enter vi's open mode with lines specified by address, or at lines
    containing pattern.

pre{serve}
    save current buffer as if the system had crashed

[address]p{rint}[count]
    print lines specified by address. count is the number of lines to print.
    eg. :304;+5p    print five lines starting with 100, reset current line to
                    100

[address]pu{t} [buffer]
    restore lines that were previously deleted or yanked and put them after
    current line. put line from buffer if specified.

q{uit}[!]
    quit. ! discard changes to file.

[address]r{ead} file
    copy text from file on line below specified by address.
    eg. :0r data    read in file "data" at top of file

[address]r{ead} !command
    read the output of command into file after line specified by address.
    eg. :$r !ls -aFC    run "ls" and read in its output at end of file

rec{over} [file]
    recover file from system save area.

rew{ind}[!]
    rewind argument list to first argument. ! discards changes to current
    file.

se{t} parm1 parm2
    set value to an option with each parm. if no parm is supplied print all
    changed options. for boolean options parm is phrased as option or
    nooption, other options are option=value. all will print all available
    options.
    set commands are usually put into your .exrc
    eg. :se autowrite tabstop=4 autoindent shiftwidth=4 wrapmargin=5
        :se all     print all available options

sh{ell}
    create a new shell. resume editing when shell exits.

so{urce} file
    read and execute ex commands from file
    eg. so ~/old.exrc

[address]s{ubstitute}[/pattern/replacement/][options][count]
    replace pattern with replacement. if pattern and replacement are omitted
    repeat last substitution. count specifies the number of lines on which to
    substitute starting with address.
    options
    c   prompt for confirmation
    g   substitute all instances on line
    p   print last line on which substitution was made
    eg. :%s/[hH]ello/Hi/g       replace hello or Hello with hi, all ocurrences
        :.,$s/[uU][nN][iI][xX]/\U&/10   upcase unix on next 10 lines
        :%s/\<./\u&/g    turn the first letter of all words to uppercase
        :1,/main/s/int/long/g   substitute occurances of int before main with
                                long

[address]t destination
    synonymn for copy

ta{g} tag
    switch to file containing tag.
    eg. :!ctags *.c     run ctags on all .c files in directory
        :ta func        switch to file containing func, put cursor on it

una{bbreviate} word
    remove word from list of abbreviations.

u{ndo}
    undo changes made by last editing command.

unm{ap}[!] char
    remove char from keyboard macros. ! remove macros for input mode.

[address]v/pattern/[commands]
    synonymn for global!
    eg. :v/./,/./-j     join empty lines to have only single empty line
                        between lines of text

ve{rsion}
    version of editor.

[address]vi [type][count]
    enter visual mode at line specified by address. exit with Q. count
    specifies initial window size.
    -   place line at bottom of window
    .   place line in center of window
    ^   print previous window

vi [+n] file
    begin editing file in visual mode at line n.

[address]w{rite}[!] [[>>] file]
    write lines specified by address to file. >> is used to append to file.
    with no address write all of the file. ! forces the write.
    eg. :1,25w new_file     write lines 1 to 25 to "new_file"
        :50,$w >> new_file  append line 50 to end of file to new_file

[address]w !command
    write lines specified by address to command.

wq[!]
    write lines specified by address to file and quit. ! forces the write

x{it}
    exit file. save changes.

[address]ya{nk} [buffer][count]
    place lines specified by address in buffer char. count is the number of
    lines to yank starting with address.
    eg. :20,100ya z     yank lines 20 to 100 into buffer z

[address]z[type][count]
    print a window of text. count is the number of lines to display starting
    with address.
    type
    +   place line at top of window(default)
    -   place line at bottom of window
    .   place line in center of window
    ^   print previous window
    =   place line in center of window. leave line as current line.

[address]![command]
    execute command. if address is specified apply lines from address as input
    to command, and replace lines with output.
    eg. :!ls -aFC           run ls, will not read output into file
        :0!ls -aFC          run ls, read in its output to beginning of file
        :11,35!sort -fd     sort lines from 11 to 35
        :%!spell -b         run the spellchecker on entire file

[address]=
    print line number of matching address. with no address print line number
    of last line.

[address]<[count]
[address]>[count]
    shitft lines left(<) or right(>). count specifies the number of lines to
    shift starting with address.
    eg. :1,9>   indent lines 1 through 9 one shiftwidth

address
    print line specified by address.

return
    print next line.

[address]&[options][count]
    repeat previous substitution. count specifies the number of lines to
    substitute on starting with address.
    eg. :s/msdos/UNIX   substitute msdos with UNIX
        :g/OS/&         redo substitutions on all lines with "OS"

[address]~[count]
    replace previous regular expression with the previous replacement from
    substitute.

*[buffer]
@[buffer]
    execute named buffer

[address]#[count]
    synonym for number


The following can be used as addresses in ex, as well as in commands :g,
:s, :v, /, ?

16.7.8.   (part III)A quick explanation of regular expressions as they are used in vi/ex.

REGULAR EXPRESSION SEARCH AND SUBSTITUTE 
.       match any single character except newline
*       match any number (including none) of the single character immediately
        preceding 
^       match beginning of line if at start of expression
$       match end of line if at end of expression
[ ]     match anything enclosed in []
[^ ]    match anything not enclosed in []
\( \)   store pattern for later replay
\<      match following characters at beginning of word 
\>      match preceding characters at end of word 
\       escape character following (needed for eg. \. to match a .)
\n      reuse previous pattern, n is a number between 1 and 9 eg. \1
&       reuse previous search pattern
~       reuse previous replacement pattern
\u      change character to upper case
\U      change characters to upper case
\l      change character to lower case
\L      change characters to lower case
\e      turn off previous \u or \l
\E      turn off previous \U or \L

Examples
dig         matches dig
^dig        matches dig at beginning of line
dig$        matches dig at end of line
^dig$       matches dig as the only word on line
^$          matches the empty line
^..*$       matches a line with at least one character
.*          matches any string of characters including none
^[ ^I]*$    as above but line can also contain spaces and/or tabs(^I)
[dD]ig      matches dig or Dig
[aA][nN]    matches an, aN, An, AN
d[aeiou]g   second letter is a vowel
d[^aeiou]g  second letter is not a vowel
d.g         second letter is anything
^....$      matches a line with exactly four characters
^\.         matches any line beginning with a dot
^\.[a-z]    same with a lowercase letter following
^[^\.]      matches any line that does not begin with a dot
;$          matches a line ending with a semicolon
digs*       matches dig, digs, digss, digsss etc.
[a-z][a-z]* matches one or more lowercase letters
[a-zA-Z]    matches any character
[^0-9a-zA-Z]    matches any symbol (not a letter or number)
\<the       matches the, theater, then
the\>       matches the, breathe
\< the\>     matches the
:%s/\<./\u&/g    turn the first letter of all words to uppercase
:%s/\<[a-z][!-~]*\>/\u&/g   as above
:%s/\<[a-z]/\u&/g           as above
:%s/.*/\L&/     turn entire file to lowercase
:%s/<[^>]*>//g  remove strings from file that start with a less than sign
                and end with a greater than sign (html tags)
., ^, &, $ must be preceded by a \ to make literal when magic is on
* must be preceded by a \ under certain circumstances although it never
hurts to precede it with a backslash whenever you mean a * not its regexp
meaning % and # should also be escaped as they mean current and alternate
file to ex

17.   System Control

17.1.  Process Control
17.2.  Accessing The Floppy Drive

17.1.   Process Control

Whenever you execute a command at the UNIX prompt, FreeBSD assigns it a Process IDentification number or PID. This is a number between 1 and 65535. This number will be used to identify and control the process the entire time that it is running. When the program terminates, the Number will be recycled into the stack and reassigned when the kernel has cycled completely though all 65535 numbers.

If the same program is run again, it will be given a different PID and FreeBSD will track it through this new number. If two copies of the same program are started at the same time, two individual PID numbers will be assigned; one to each.

ps will give you a listing of all the process you have running.

>ps

PID   TT    STAT     TIME      COMMAND

12346 p0    Is+      0:00.57   -tcsh (tcsh)

9871  p0    R+       0:00.57   ps

ps -a will give you a listing of all of the process running on the system.

To stop a process, you can use the kill command. Select the PID of the process you want to stop. Then type

kill -KILL PID.

For Example to kill process #12346 you would type:

>kill -KILL 12346

Process # -1 refers to every running process that you own. If you have several process running, you can kill all of them, (except your current shell) by typing:

kill -HUP -1

As root, you can use this command to kill, or restart, every process in the system.

If you don't want to use the PID, you can use the program killall. killall requires that you specify the name of the program running as a command line argument. Then it kills every instance of that program that it finds, providing you have permission to kill that program.

For instance:

killall make

would kill all make processes that you have running.

In addition to a priority, each process is assigned a ``Niceness'' value. The default value is 0. The users can give a nice value of up to +20, making processes run slower; freeing up processor time for more important processes. The ``nicer'' a program is, the more it allows other programs to run. Root can give values down to -20, making important processes run faster. All child processes, processes started by a program, inherit the nice value from the parent program. If you give a nice value of -20 to a make world all processes spawned by that program will have the nice value of -20. ie. all compiler processes generated will run at a nice of -20.

To give a program a nice value, precede your command with nice. If you wanted to start ppp with a nice value of +10 you would use:

> nice +10 ppp

If you want to change the nice value of a process that is already running, you would use renice followed by the process ID. To change the niceness value of process #1234 from the default of Zero to -10, you would use:

> renice -10 1234

'Nicing' or 'renicing' to +10 is the most common use of the (re)nice command. It's really just a way of telling FreeBSD that you aren't too concerned about the process finishing immediately, and it's okay to let other processes use more CPU time than your process. Usually, if you are going to run a program that you know will take a long time to run (say 5 minutes or greater) it is considered 'polite' to nice +10 the program. You're program will still finish very quickly. In fact, if the system isn't very busy there will be almost no difference, since no other processes are battling for the CPU!. Unless the system is very overloaded, a nice value of +10 will NOT result in a slow down. When you raise the niceness value of a running program, your program isn't put on hold until others are done, it just receives a smaller percentage of the CPU time. A nice value of +20 indicates that the application in question should ONLY run when the CPU is completely free. Generally, the only time a process is run with a nice value of +20 is when you don't want it to slow down any other aspect of the system.

top is pa process monitoring tool that helps you keep track of system resources. It displays the Active Processes, CPU Utilization, Swap Space Usage, and Memory Available. It also allows you to renice and kill processes. If you watch the CPU utilization, you will notice that it sits at about 90% IDLE most of the time. (Active Servers won't have so many Free Cycles.) Many system administrators find ways to utilize these idle CPU Cycles with creative applications of nice, renice, and top. Processor intensive, time consuming processes can be set to run in the background and only use up IDLE CPU Cycles, allowing your program to run and not infringe on regular operations.

17.2.   Accessing The Floppy Drive

FreeBSD looks at file systems in ``slices'' or partitions. Each file system is assigned to a device. The Floppy Drive is assigned the device ``fd''. The devices are also numbered, starting with 0. The first floppy disk is fd0. Filesystem devices are further divided up into slices. Each slice is assigned a letter. The letter is appended to the device name and number. Traditionally, slices a through h are available. Some slices have special meanings:

a ) This refers to the boot sector of the disk only.

b ) This refers to the swap space on the disk if there is any.

c ) This references the Whole Disk. Usually what you want.

e-h ) This and other such letters would refer to non-bootsector
slices if the disk happened to be divided up further.

Access to devices is granted through file representations of those devices contained in the /dev/ directory. Each slice has its own file representation. Therefore to access the whole floppy disk you would reference the file: /dev/fd0c. To actually get at the contents of the disk, you have to mount it into the file system under a directory. If you have a FreeBSD formatted Floppy disk, you can just use the mount command without any special parameters. You will have to specify a directory that exists on the system that you have write permission to, and have permission to access the device file you are trying to mount. By default, general users don't have access to the floppy disk device files.

To mount the floppy to a directory called /mnt you would type:

mount /dev/fd0c /mnt

Then cd to /mnt and work with the files that are there.

If you have a MSDOS disk that you want access to, you will use the command:

mount_msdos /dev/fd0c /mnt

To check and see if it mounted you can cd to the directory and do an ls, or type df and df will give you a list of all the file systems that are currently mounted and where they are mounted to. It will also show all the amount of space used.

Mounting a MSDOS floppy would give you access to the floppy just like a regular directory on the system, however it will automatically truncate the file names of any files copied to that directory to the dos 8.3 notation. (ie. FreeBSD.File.long.name will become FreeBSD.Fil)

When you are done with the floppy disk, you will have to unmount it from the file system. To do this type:

umount /dev/fd0c

OR

umount /mnt

Either one will successfully unmount the file system. You cannot unmount a file system while you are in the directory that the filesystem is mounted to. This will give you a device busy error. You will have to cd out of that directory before unmounting it.

Now when you cd to /mnt it should be empty.

:
Customizing your FreeBSD System

18.  Configuring your .cshrc File
19.  Setting up More Virtual Terminals
20.  Adding a Hard Disk
21.  System Configuration File Options
22.  Adding and Installing Software
23.  How to install Linux Emulation

18.   Configuring your .cshrc File

This is the Standard .cshrc files that comes with your system.

#csh .cshrc file

alias h		history 25
alias j		jobs -l
alias la	ls -a
alias lf	ls -FA
alias ll	ls -lA
alias su	su -m

setenv	EDITOR	vi
setenv	EXINIT	'set autoindent'
setenv	PAGER	more

set path = (~/bin /bin /usr/{bin,games} /usr/local/bin /usr/X11R6/bin)

if ($?prompt) then
	# An interactive shell -- set some stuff up
	set filec
	set history = 1000
	set ignoreeof
	set mail = (/var/mail/$USER)
	set mch = `hostname -s`
	set prompt = "${mch:q}: {\!} "
	umask 2
endif

The path statement tells your shell where to look for programs when you try to execute them. It starts with the first directory listed and looks there for any match to the command you have just entered. If it finds it, it executes that program.

If the directory is not listed in the path statement, it will not look there for executable files. Not even in your current directory. So even if you are in the same directory as the file you want to execute, it will not find it if that directory is not listed in your path statement.

If you want to execute a command in your current path, you have to precede the command with ``./''. For example, you are in the /usr/local/www/cgi-bin directory and want to test out a program you have written. The program is getdata.pl, and you have just tried to run it by typing getdata.pl, however instead of the HTML output you expect, you just get the error, getdata.pl: Command not found. This is because you did not include the ``.'' directory in your path statement. Remember that in UNIX, the ``.'' represents the current directory. To get this file to execute you would need to type:

./getdata.pl

Now you should see the HTML output you expect, unless you messed up in your program and then you will get error messages pertaining to the language you wrote the program in.

A TCSH Example

As we mentioned earlier, the tcsh has a few extra features over the base csh that make life on the command line a little easier. Here is an example .cshrc file that takes advantage of tcsh's goodies:

#tcsh .tcshrc file

alias h		history 25
alias j		jobs -l
alias la	ls -a
alias lf	ls -FA
alias ll	ls -lF
#alias su	su -m  -- bad for su'ing to root..

setenv	EDITOR	vim
setenv	PAGER	less

set path = ( ~/bin /usr/local/bin /bin /usr/{bin,games} /usr/sbin /sbin /usr/local/samba/bin /usr/X11R6/bin /usr/local/java/bin .)

setenv IRCNICK ringzero
setenv IRCSERVER irc2.magic.ca
setenv NNTPSERVER news.sentex.ca

if ($?prompt) then
	# An interactive shell -- set some stuff up
	set filec
	set fignore = .o		# ignore object files for filec
	set showmatch			# for programming
	set history = 100 
	set savehist = 75		# tcsh version of history..
	set ignoreeof
	set mail = (/var/mail/$USER)
	set prompt="vinyl:{%h}%~ %% "	# tcsh version of above!

	set watch = (1 gabor any mike any adrian any pwardrop any)

	umask 2
endif

The first things to note are the setenv lines. In this case, they are setting some environment variable that are used by my news reader software and IRC client software. The next point of interest is the set fignore = .o, which makes the file completion (set filec) ignore files that end in ``.o''. This is nice if you're a C programmer since you never would want to edit or manually do much with a .o file - you want the ``.c'' file! The showmatch option is another addition to the file completion mechanism of tcsh. Try it out and see what it does for yourself! The set prompt option sets up a very friendly prompt for your shell. It will show you what directory you are in all the time. Here's what it looks like:

mark:{123}~ % cd /usr/src
mark:{124}/usr/src %

Note that the tilde character (``~'') indicates your home directory. Now that you've seen some of what the tcsh and csh options are, the best way to learn more about them is to man tcsh! All of the features of both shells (such as the ``watch'' feature of tcsh) are documented in the man pages. Go ahead and take a look and experiment to see what fun tricks you prefer!

Note:

If you change your .cshrc file, you can re-read the changes by issuing a source .cshrc!

19.   Setting up More Virtual Terminals

A Virtual Terminal is a Terminal built into the Main Server Console. It allows you to have several screens open at once, however only one screen is visible at a time. By Default there are four Virtual terminals setup, but only three enabled for use.. To switch between them hold down the ALT key and press F2 or F3 (You start out at F1. This will switch you to the second or third Virtual terminal. Now you should have a login screen like the one you just left. There is nothing different about logging in here as opposed to the virtual terminal on F1. To get back to your original screen, hold down the ALT key and press F1

To add more Virtual terminals, you need SuperUser access to the /dev directory. Next you need to run the program MAKEDEV. MAKEDEV is a shell script, so you have to use the sh shell interpreter to execute it. At the command prompt type:

cd /dev

sh MAKEDEV vty16

Note:

(Type MAKEDEV in all CAPS, Capitalization makes a big difference.)

This will create 16 Virtual terminals. They will be accessible with the ALT + F? keys. But Before you can use them, you have to enable them in the /etc/ttys file. Change directories to the /etc/ directory and use vi to edit the /etc/ttys file.

cd /etc

vi ttys

If you are running The X Windows System, you need to leave one of the Virtual Terminals turned off. By default, ttyv4 is turned off.

In the section labeled Virtual Terminals, you need to add a few lines. If you just made 16 virtual terminal devices, you now have 16 virtual terminals to configure. You need to have 16 lines that deal with virtual terminals in the /etc/ttys file; right now you only have 4. You can cut and paste the line that says:

ttyv2 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure

Move the cursor to that line and press yy then move the cursor down one line by pressing j and press 12p to paste the line 12 times. Now you have 12 copies of ttyv2, you need to change this, numbering them in HEX. Start numbering them at 4, then 5,6,7,8,9,a,b,c,d,e,f.

When you are done, you should have ttyv1 - ttyvf configured in the /etc/ttys file.

In vi you can do this easily by positioning the cursor over the number you wish to change and pressing r the next key you press will replace that digit, press 4 to start with. Then press j to move down and press r followed by the next number, repeat as necessary.

when you have finished editing, press ESC :wq to save(write) and quit vi Now you will have to restart the init process. You must have SuperUser access. Type: kill -HUP 1

Now you are ready to use your Virtual Terminals.

20.   Adding a Hard Disk

The hard drive needs to be physically installed. Make sure the cable is on properly, pin 1 is the closest to the power plug.(ie. the red stripe goes toward the power plug). And make sure that there is power to the Drive.

Now reboot to FreeBSD. During Boot up, FreeBSD should detect the drive. If it doesn't, reboot using the "-c" option. At the boot prompt and go in to the visual config and make sure that the appropriate controller is enabled. If you have built a custom kernel and have disabled the extra IDE drive, or are adding a first SCSI drive to a kernel that has SCSI disabled, this is most likely the problem. If the kernel has the controller merely *disabled*, not removed, you can enable it in the visual config. Otherwise you will have to rebuild the kernel adding the appropriate controllers and devices.

If you missed the boot up section, type dmesg at the prompt after you have logged in. This will display your boot-up messages again.

/usr/> dmesg | more

If you are installing SCSI, be sure the drives are found by the SCSI BIOS and that the proper SCSI termination is enabled.

Once everything has been found, you are ready to start the FreeBSD configuration.

***************************************************************

The first thing you will need to do is to clear out whatever might have been on the disk previously. Most hard-drive manufacturers ship new drives already partitioned and formatted to the DOS FAT filesystem. For the remainder of this example, we'll be using a hard-drive that was detected as sd1. In our case, it is the second SCSI device on the chain (with SCSI ID 1). Here's how to get rid of that FAT garbage:

dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rsd1 count=100

Now you need to prepare a ``disk label'' on the drive. We'll assume in this example that you plan on using the entire drive under FreeBSD:

disklabel -Brw sd1 auto

* substitute rsd1 and sd1 for the disk that you are adding, don't do this to a disk you are using. This basically kills everything on the disk, and prepares it for use by FreeBSD. If this works, you shouldn't need to use fdisk.

If you are planning to use the entire disk as one partition under FreeBSD, then you can use the single default partition just created by disk label, otherwise you will need to use the disklabel editor and create the smaller partitions. You might want to add a swap partition to the disk, for example.

To do get in to the disk label editor for IDE disk 1, type:

disklabel -e wd0

# /dev/rwd0c:
type: ESDI
disk: wd0s1	
label: 
flags:
bytes/sector: 512
sectors/track: 51
tracks/cylinder: 13
sectors/cylinder: 663
cylinders: 722
sectors/unit: 479298
rpm: 3600
interleave: 1
trackskew: 0
cylinderskew: 0
headswitch: 0		# milliseconds
track-to-track seek: 0	# milliseconds
drivedata: 0 

8 partitions:
#        size   offset    fstype   [fsize bsize bps/cpg]
  a:    65536        0    4.2BSD        0     0     0 	# (Cyl.    0 - 98*)
  b:    85936    65536      swap                    	# (Cyl.   98*- 228*)
  c:   479298        0    unused        0     0       	# (Cyl.    0 - 722*)
  e:    61440   151472    4.2BSD        0     0     0 	# (Cyl.  228*- 321*)
  f:   266386   212912    4.2BSD        0     0     0 	# (Cyl.  321*- 722*)

Now comes the tricky part, getting the numbers right. The easiest way to allocate a partition is to select the number of cylinders you want to allocate to the partition and calculate from there. The size is the size of the partition in sectors. The offset is the last sector of the previous partition. Partition a starts at sector 0. Partitions need to start and end on cylinder boundaries. To find the cylinder boundary, multiply the tracks/cylinder # by the sectors/cylinder # and then multiply that by the number of cylinders you want to allocate. (Sectors * Tracks * Cylinders = Size_of_Partition) To find the offset, add the size of the previous partition to the offset of the previous partition. (Size + Offset = Offset_Of_Next_Partition)

The fstype is the type of filesystem you are putting on that partition. 4.2BSD is the filesystem type for a normal FreeBSD filesystem. swap is the filesystem type for a swap file. FAT is the filsystem type for DOS partitions. Partition a is reserved for the boot sector. Leaving it blank implies that you don't have/need a boot sector.

Partition b is reserved for the swap file. It cannot start with an offset of 0. There must be a partition that starts before it. Partition e can start at offset 0 and be any size, then the swap partition can be placed starting at the offset where partition e ended.

Partition c should not be changed. Start making your filesystems on partition e

Now you need to create a file system on the drive, you use the newfs command to do this. If you are using the whole disk, use the c partition automatically created by disklabel.

newfs /dev/rsd1c

The c partition always represents the entire device - so in this case we've just created a filesystem that spans the entire drive.

If you have separated the disk into smaller parts, you will need to use newfs to create a file system on each partition, except the swap partition.

Finally, you want to mount the drive. We'll assume here that you've created a ``mount point'' of /d2 (using mkdir).

mount /dev/sd1c /d2

If all went well, you should now see something like this: 

#vinyl % df -k

Filesystem  1K-blocks     Used    Avail Capacity  Mounted on
/dev/sd0a       31775    13530    15703    46%    /
/dev/sd0s1f   1913091  1086207   673837    62%    /usr
/dev/sd0s1e     29727    12663    14686    46%    /var
procfs              4        4        0   100%    /proc
/dev/sd1c     4108717   616594  3163426    16%    /d2

Now you will need to create an entry in the /etc/fstab file so that it will get mounted each time you reboot. Otherwise you will have to execute the mount each time by hand. A fstab entry will need to be made for each partition you created, including the swap partition.

Also reference the man pages for: fstab mount disklabel dmesg dd and newfs

21.   System Configuration File Options

21.1.   Important initial Boot-time options
21.2.  Network configuration sub-section
21.3.  Network daemon (miscellaneous) & NFS options:
21.4.   Network Time Services options:
21.5.  Network Information Services (NIS) options:
21.6.  Network routing options:
21.7.   System console options
21.8.   Miscellaneous administrative options
21.9.   Allow local configuration override at the very end here

Note:

All arguments must be in double or single quotes. Multiple entries are separated by spaces.

21.1.   Important initial Boot-time options

swapfile="NO"

# Set to name of swapfile if aux swapfile desired.

apm_enable="NO"

Set to YES if you want APM enabled.

pccard_enable="NO"

Set to YES if you want to configure PCCARD devices.

pccard_mem="DEFAULT"

If pccard_enable=YES, this is card memory address.

pccard_ifconfig="NO"

Specialized pccard ethernet configuration (or NO).

local_startup="/usr/local/etc/rc.d /usr/X11R6/etc/rc.d"

Local Startup Directories. During startup, FreeBSD searches certain directories and executes any programs in them. Sort of like the ``startup'' folders in Windows. The local_startup option lets you specify which directories to search during startup. Multiple directories, separated by spaces, can be listed. They will be searched in the order listed and every file will be executed. This is an alternate approach to using /etc/rc.local to start programs.

21.2.   Network configuration sub-section

Basic network options:

hostname="myname.my.domain"

This is the name of your machine. It also must include the domain that you are in if you are attached to the internet. This name should also appear in your DNS table.

nisdomainname="NO"

Set to NIS domain if using NIS (or NO).

firewall="NO"

firewall type (see /etc/rc.firewall) or NO.

tcp_extensions="YES"

# Allow RFC1323 & RFC1544 extensions (or NO).

network_interfaces="lo0"

This is where you setup all of your network cards. Each network card will have its own listing. lo0 is the loopback device, otherwise known as ``localhost''. Network cards such as ed0 (NE2000) and fxp0 (Intel Ether Express) would be added to the above.

ifconfig_lo0="inet 127.0.0.1"

This is the section that configures each network card that you listed above.

ifconfig_lo0_alias0="inet 127.0.0.254 netmask 0xffffffff"

This would setup an alias to the localhost via lo0.

21.3.   Network daemon (miscellaneous) & NFS options:

syslogd_enable="YES"

Syslog is your logging services. It logs all errors into /var/log/. It is configured with /etc/syslog.conf.

syslogd_flags=""

# Flags to syslogd (if enabled).

inetd_enable="YES"

These are all of your network services. If this is not enabled you can not telnet to this computer. It is configured through /etc/inetd.conf. It manages all dynamic services, i.e. services that start when you need them, such as: finger, telnet, rlogin, ftp, pop3 etc...

inetd_flags=""

# Optional flags to inetd.

named_enable="NO"

This runs your Internet Domain Naming Services, i.e. BIND. If you already have a DNS you won't need to start this here. Its configured through /etc/namedb/named.boot, unless you specify another. You should have atleast two DNS servers.

named_flags="-b /etc/namedb/named.boot"

This is where you specify where named gets it's configuration file, and other such things.

kerberos_server_enable="NO"

# Run a kerberos master server (or NO).

rwhod_enable="NO"

# Run the rwho daemon (or NO).

amd_enable="NO"

# Run amd service with $amd_flags (or NO).

amd_flags="-a /net -c 1800 -k i386 -d my.domain -l syslog /host /etc/amd.map"

Example

nfs_client_enable="NO"

# This host is an NFS client (or NO).

nfs_client_flags="-n 4"

# Flags to nfsiod (if enabled).

nfs_server_enable="NO"

# This host is an NFS server (or NO).

nfs_server_flags="-u -t 4"

# Flags to nfsd (if enabled).

weak_mountd_authentication="NO"

# Running PCNFSD / other non-root nfsd (or NO).

nfs_reserved_port_only="NO"

# Provide NFS only on secure port (or NO).

rpc_lockd_enable="NO"

# Run NFS rpc.lockd (*broken!*) if nfs_server.

rpc_statd_enable="YES"

# Run NFS rpc.statd if nfs_server (or NO).

portmap_enable="YES"

# Run the portmapper service (or NO).

portmap_flags=""

# Flags to portmap (if enabled).

xtend_enable="NO"

# Run the X-10 power controller daemon.

xtend_flags=""

# Flags to xtend (if enabled).

21.4.   Network Time Services options:

timed_enable="NO"

Run the time daemon (or NO).

timed_flags=""

Flags to timed (if enabled).

ntpdate_enable="NO"

Run the ntpdate to sync time (or NO).

ntpdate_flags=""

Flags to ntpdate (if enabled).

xntpd_enable="NO"

Run xntpd Network Time Protocol (or NO).

xntpd_flags=""

Flags to xntpd (if enabled).

tickadj_enable="NO"

Run tickadj (or NO).

tickadj_flags="-Aq"

Flags to tickadj (if enabled).

21.5.   Network Information Services (NIS) options:

nis_client_enable="NO"

We're an NIS client (or NO).

nis_client_flags=""

Flags to ypbind (if enabled).

nis_ypset_enable="NO"

Run ypset at boot time (or NO).

nis_ypset_flags=""

Flags to ypset (if enabled).

nis_server_enable="NO"

We're an NIS server (or NO).

nis_server_flags=""

Flags to ypserv (if enabled).

nis_ypxfrd_enable="NO"

Run rpc.ypxfrd at boot time (or NO).

nis_ypxfrd_flags=""

Flags to rpc.ypxfrd (if enabled).

nis_yppasswdd_enable="NO"

Run rpc.yppasswdd at boot time (or NO).

nis_yppasswdd_flags=""

Flags to rpc.yppasswdd (if enabled).

21.6.   Network routing options:

defaultrouter="NO"

This is where you set your default gateway. This is the router IP address that connects you to the Internet. If you don't set this, you will only be able to ping addresses on the same subnet as you. If your IP address is 10.1.1.3, and your subnetmask is 255.255.255.0, you will be able to see 10.1.1.2 but not 10.1.2.2, becuase you don't have a default route set.

static_routes=""

Static routes are advanced options for machines that act as routers or that sit on two different networks.

gateway_enable="NO"

Set to YES if this host will be a gateway. You need then set to YES when you have more than one network card in the computer doing routing, bridging, ipnat, or when you are acting as a dialup server.

router_enable="YES"

Set to YES to enable a routing daemon.

router="routed"

Name of routing daemon to use if enabled.

router_flags="-q"

Flags for routing daemon.

mrouted_enable="NO"

Do multicast routing (see /etc/mrouted.conf).

ipxgateway_enable="NO"

Set to YES to enable IPX routing.

ipxrouted_enable="NO"

Set to YES to run the IPX routing daemon.

ipxrouted_flags=""

Flags for IPX routing daemon.

arpproxy_all=""

replaces obsolete kernel option ARP_PROXY_ALL. You need then when acting as a dialup server.

21.7.   System console options

keymap="NO"

keymap in /usr/share/syscons/keymaps/* (or NO).

keyrate="NO"

keyboard rate to: slow, normal, fast (or NO).

keybell="NO"

bell to duration.pitch or normal or visual (or NO).

keychange="NO"

function keys default values (or NO).

cursor="NO"

cursor type {normal|blink|destructive} (or NO).

scrnmap="NO"

screen map in /usr/share/syscons/scrnmaps/* (or NO).

font8x16="NO"

font 8x16 from /usr/share/syscons/fonts/* (or NO).

font8x14="NO"

font 8x14 from /usr/share/syscons/fonts/* (or NO).

font8x8="NO"

font 8x8 from /usr/share/syscons/fonts/* (or NO).

blanktime="NO"

blank time (in seconds) or "NO" to turn it off.

saver="NO"

screen saver: blank/daemon/green/snake/star/NO. This sets the screensaver that is used when you do not have X running.

moused_type="NO"

See man page for rc.conf(8) for available settings.

moused_port="/dev/cuaa0"

Set to your mouse port (required if mousetype set).

moused_flags=""

Any additional flags to moused.

21.8.   Miscellaneous administrative options

cron_enable="YES"

Run the periodic job daemon. Cron is the ``daemon'' that schedules when things happen. There are three standard scripts that are run on a regular basis: /etc/daily /etc/weekly and /etc/montly. You can configure these to accomplish the tasks you need done.

lpd_enable="YES"

Run the line printer daemon. You need this to be able to print. It is configured through /etc/printcap

lpd_flags=""

Flags to lpd (if enabled).

sendmail_enable="YES"

Run the sendmail daemon (or NO). You need this to have e-mail services unless you have replaced it with another mailer daemon. It is configured through /etc/sendmail.cf

sendmail_flags="-bd -q30m"

-bd is pretty mandatory.

savecore_enable="NO"

Save kernel crashdumps for debugging (or NO).

dumpdev="NO"

Device name to crashdump to (if enabled).

check_quotas="NO"

Check quotas (or NO).

accounting_enable="NO"

Turn on process accounting (or NO).

ibcs2_enable="NO"

Ibcs2 (SCO) emulation loaded at startup (or NO).

linux_enable="NO"

Linux emulation loaded at startup (or NO). See the section on setting up Linux Emulation.

rand_irqs="NO"

Stir the entropy pool (like "5 11" or NO).

21.9.   Allow local configuration override at the very end here 

if [ -f /etc/rc.conf.local ]; then
	. /etc/rc.conf.local
fi

22.   Adding and Installing Software

Adding/installing software in FreeBSD is easy. FreeBSD maintains a set of "packages" that are pre-built, ready to run binaries of almost all the popular programs out there. If you have the CD set, they are all on CD#1, which you can browse directly (there's a directory called packages..), or use the "/stand/sysinstall" tool, go to Post Configuration, and choose Packages. You'll get a nice little screen with all the packages categorized with a short description.

Often, you might want to ftp to ftp.freebsd.org to get the latest version of a package - ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/packages-stable is probably where you want to look. If you download a package, it will have a .tgz ending. You don't need to manually untar/expand this file. Just use the command pkg_add".

Ex: I've downloaded the packages called spaz-1.32.tgz

That's it! Now the package is installed and setup on your system. If you're using csh or tcsh, you should type rehash for your shell to rescan your system bin directories...

The package is registered in the /var/db/pkg directory - you can cd to there and get a directory listing to see what packages you have installed on your system. If you no longer want a package, you can remove it with the pkg_delete command: pkg_delete spaz-1.32.tgz (from the /var/db/pkg directory)

The FreeBSD ports system works exactly the same, with port registration making it easy to remove things you don't want afterwards.. The difference is that the ports are in "Source" form, and need to be compiled. If you have an Internet connection up, and have the ports tree installed (you were asked if you wanted it installed during the installation of FreeBSD) you can cd /usr/ports and take a look around.

Say you wanted to install the port from the /usr/ports/net/spaz directory -

Once again, you use the pkg_delete program in /var/db/pkg to remove the ports that you have installed.

23.   How to install Linux Emulation

Linux emulation allows you run linux binaries on your FreeBSD system. It actually works very well. There are two ways to run the emulation:

Either way you install it, you must first install the Linux libraries from the ports collection.

cd /usr/ports/emulators/linux_lib

make install

This will install all the linux libraries into /usr/compat/. It will install the script /usr/bin/linux, which loads the kernel loadable module needed for linux emulation.

If you wish to run linux emulation using the lkm, all you need to do after this is modify your /etc/rc.conf at the following line.

  linux_enable="YES"      # Linux emulation loaded at startup (or NO).

This will enable Linux emulation at boot up. If you wish start Linux emulation with out rebooting, just type linux. (You need to be root to do this).

If you don't use the lkm, you need to rebuild your kernel and include

  options         COMPAT_LINUX

in your kernel config file. Now, Linux emulation will always be enabled. You do not need to modify your rc.conf

:
Setting up your Network

24.  Configuring Network Interfaces
25.  Introduction to TCP/IP
26.  Inetd, The ``Super'' Server
27.  File Transfer Protocol
28.  Email
29.  POP3 Email
30.  Windows File Sharing; SAMBA
31.  Web Servers
32.  NFS - Network File System
33.  NIS - Network Information System
34.  Setting up A Domain Name Server.
35.  Router / GateWay
36.  Firewall
37.  IP Network Address Translation

24.   Configuring Network Interfaces

A network interface is a device that allows you to communicate with your network. These devices could be a network card, or a modem, or a variety of different pieces of equipment that allows communication. These devices need to be configured so that the network knows who you are. These interfaces will be configured to use TCP/IP networking protocols. This is usually setup in the /etc/rc.conf, or /etc/sysconfig if you have a 2.2.1 or older system.

25.   Introduction to TCP/IP

25.1.  IP - Internet Protocol
25.2.  TCP - Transmission Control Protocol

TCP/IP is the protocol used for network communications by FreeBSD. Of course, TCP/IP is also the protocol used to communicate over the Internet, meaning FreeBSD can be used on the Internet ``out of the box''. This chapter will attempt to give you a brief overview of the TCP/IP protocol, and what you need to understand in order to configure your FreeBSD machine for use on a TCP/IP network.

While we are going to give you enough of an introduction to TCP/IP in this book to get you up and running, if you're in the position of maintaining a FreeBSD network (or any TCP/IP network for that matter) you'll almost certainly need a better understanding of the TCP/IP protocol. TCP/IP is a large enough protocol that one could devote an entire book to it, and indeed many people have! An excellent book on the subject (IMHO) is TCP/IP Network Administration by Craig Hunt. Published by O'Reilly and Associates. This book gives a more in depth overview of TCP/IP and covers many of the common Unix services that we touch upon in this book. While the material is somewhat out of date when it concerns configuration files and so on, you'll find that the concepts are still perfectly conveyed. If you're interested in the guts of the protocol itself, Richard Stevens has three entire volumes written about TCP/IP starting with the theoretical and moving towards more practical knowledge. TCP/IP Illustrated is published by Addison Wesley.

Note:

Although FreeBSD can also use the Apple-talk and IPX/SPX (Novell) protocols, this isn't the norm and for this reason we'll focus on TCP/IP as the protocol of choice for FreeBSD. The Applications section of this book will look at using FreeBSD as a replacement Apple and Novell File/Print server - we'll discuss how to turn on the appropriate protocols there.

The first thing you need to know about TCP/IP is that it is actually a suite of protocols. Together, this suite of protocols lets us send data from one computer to another -- a source to a destination -- without having to specifically know the exact path the data will take on its journey. There are three important components that you need to know: IP, TCP, and UDP.

25.1.   IP - Internet Protocol

Essentially, IP makes packets. What's a packet? A packet is a small ``unit'', or ``package'' of data. The easiest way to understand what a packet is, and how IP makes packets, is to look at an example. Let's say you have a 200K file you wish to send over the Internet to a friend. You can think of this file as a ``stream'' of data - the file has a beginning, and a sequential set of bytes (200 thousand of them in this case) all the way up to the end of the file. Any continuous set of data like this is called a stream, due to the directional nature of the data. The most important thing to realize about a data stream is that the order that the bytes are in is critical. What IP does is break this continuous stream of data up into discrete packages (``packets'') that can be delivered independently. IP chops this data stream up into packets, wraps each packet to make it suitable for delivery over the Internet, and labels the packet with a source and destination address.

25.2.   TCP - Transmission Control Protocol

What I didn't tell you before about IP is that, oddly enough, IP is not reliable. IP doesn't guarantee that a packet will reach its destination, or that a collection of packets that represent a single coherent data stream will arrive in the correct sequential order. That's where TCP comes in. TCP puts the packets in their correct order and makes sure all the packets arrived at the destination. Without TCP, IP would be nearly useless! I guess that's why they call the suite TCP/IP!! :-)

Hidden in the address information of each packet is a sequence number. IP increments the sequence number as it sends each packet out, and TCP uses these sequence numbers to reassemble the packets in the correct order when they arrive at the destination. TCP also uses the sequence number to determine if any packets are missing. If a particular packet does not show up (it was incorrectly routed, etc.) TCP requests the packet from the source again. It will keep trying until it has all the packets that make up a data stream. Hence, TCP makes the TCP/IP packet delivery mechanism ``reliable''.

TCP adds another layer of functionality that IP itself doesn't provide: ports. IP numbers specify individual computers on the network, whereas TCP port numbers specify services on that particular computer. Port numbers allow you to have many services running at once, and have a mechanism for making sure requests get to the correct service. The example you are perhaps most familiar with is a web server. WWW servers typically run on port 80. The standard notation for representing a IP number and Port number combination is ip:port - for example, 192.168.1.100:80 . TCP lets us send a packet intended for the web server, and a packet intended for the telnet server (port 23) to the same host IP number simultaneously. Great! For the record, port numbers range from 0 - 65000. All ports below 1024 are restricted, meaning that only root has the privilege of starting a service which listens on a port less than 1024. Anything above 1024 is fair game for any user process to use - no root privileges are required.

26.   Inetd, The ``Super'' Server

As we discovered earlier, a FreeBSD system can run many programs simultaneously - such is the case for a FreeBSD network server; it will run a program for each service you wish to provide. The problem is, each service eats up a chunk of memory - and memory is always in demand (not to mention expensive!). The solution is to only start a service when it has a pending request, and to terminate it when a reply is sent to the client making the request. So how does a service know when to wake up?

That's where inetd comes in. It's called the Internet ``super-server'' since it controls many of the Internet services available on a typical Unix host. inetd monitors the port numbers of all requests that come to a server. When a request comes in, inetd looks in /etc/services for the name of the service. As we can see below, the services file is a simple mapping of port numbers to service names:

Next, after inetd has the name of the service to start, it looks in its configuration file, /etc/inetd.conf to get setup information. The config file looks like this:

The general format of the file is as follows:

Let's take a closer look at one of the lines and see what this all means.

telnet stream tcp nowait root /usr/libexec/telnetd telnetd

The first field, telnet, is the name of the service. This name must match exactly the name found in /etc/services. The second and third fields, stream tcp, describes the kind of connection the service will make. In this case, tcp will handle the packet ordering so that the downloaded information appears to be a steady stream of error-free data. The only other option for this field, dgram udp, specifies that UDP, not TCP, will handle the packet ordering (the so called ``unreliable'' datagram form of TCP/IP).

The fourth field, nowait tells the service to spawn itself for each service request that comes to the server - even if one instance of the program is already running. The other option, wait says to run the programs sequentially, waiting for the first program to finish before staring up another instance.

The fifth field, root, specifies the user ID used to run the service. The majority of programs started from inetd run as the user ``root'' or ``nobody'' The remaining fields tell inetd where to find the program, and any arguments that are required (in the case of telnet, no arguments are present).

Sidebar:

The disadvantage of running programs through inetd is that it isn't too efficient for services that are constantly being run, perhaps once a second, or even hundreds of times per second. Why is that you ask? Well, although running a program through inetd generally reduces the amount of memory used, it introduces a penalty in that it must ``fork'' the program each time a request comes in. ``fork'' simply means that inetd starts a new process for the service. We won't get into the technical details of the overhead required to fork a process. Let's just say that there is an overhead, and under a busy system is enough to cause a considerable slow down. For this reason, some services are run as ``daemons'' instead of through inetd. How you decide to run a service depends entirely on what you feel is important. If performance is critical, run the program as a daemon. If you want to reduce memory usage, run the program through the inetd super-server. Typically, FTP, finger, talk, POP3, and telnetd are run through the inetd server, but things such as web servers and the mail delivery server (sendmail, usually) are run as daemons. Web servers like the NCSA and Apache servers even go through the trouble of ``pre-forking'' several copies of themselves to eliminate the overhead of forking under large numbers of requests! If you install a new service, the documentation that comes with the program will generally give tips on which approach is best for that particular application.

27.   File Transfer Protocol

Not Yet Scheduled

28.   Email

Not Yet Scheduled

29.   POP3 Email

Not Yet Scheduled

30.   Windows File Sharing; SAMBA

if you are installing from the ports it installs everything to /usr/local/samba/ The binary files are stored in the bin directory. The config file is located in lib/smb.conf

if you are installing from a package it installs stuff to /usr/local/sbin and the config file is in /usr/local/etc/smb.conf You will need to read the man page on smb.conf to understand how to create the smb.conf configuration file. The Documentation on smb.conf is extremely well written and comprehensive. Everything you could possibly put in the configuration file is included in that man page. To read it, type:

man smb.conf

Use testparm to check your config file. testparm will also tell you where Samba is looking for your default config file.

No matter which way you installed samba, you will need to modify your /etc/rc.local file to start Samba at boot up. To do this, include these lines in yourrc.local file:

/usr/local/sbin/smbd -D /usr/local/sbin/nmbd -D

31.   Web Servers

Not Yet Scheduled

32.   NFS - Network File System

Coming soon... NFS lets client Unix machines mount remote file systems as if they were local.

33.   NIS - Network Information System

Coming soon.. NIS lets you distribute user, group, and other information to Unix clients from a centralized server. Typically used in conjuntion with NFS

34.   Setting up A Domain Name Server.

First off you have to have a valid domain name to use. The place that your domain is registered with needs to point at the IP address of your primary DNS Machine. This should all be taken care of by INTERNIC or the DNS one level above you.

If you are setting up a sub-domain, you will need to create a mapping in your zone pointing to the primary DNS for that domain.

First:

In the /etc/sysconfig file, or in the new /etc/rc.conf, Add the line:

namedflags="-b /etc/namedb/named.boot"

This will start the ``Name Daemon'' at boot up and set it to read the file /etc/namedb/named.boot as the configuration file.

Now you need to cd to the /etc/namedb/ directory.

Now type:

sh make-localhost

This will create the localhost.rev in that directory. This file is necessary for all local traffic to be properly dealt with.

Now create or edit the file named.boot 

++++++++++++++NAMED.BOOT EXAMPLE ++++++++++++++++++++

;semi colons comment out statments.

; sortlist 128.3.0.0

; The sort list gives higher priority to certain domains in the case
;of multi-homed hosts.

directory	/etc/namedb

; this denotes the directory that named should look to find all of the 
; source files.

; type    domain		source host/file		backup file

cache     .							named.root

; named keeps a cache of recently looked up hostname in the file mentioned.

primary   0.0.127.IN-ADDR.ARPA	localhost.rev

; this is the local host entry needs to be there. Usually automatic.

primary  Berkeley.EDU		your.domain.zone
primary  32.128.IN-ADDR.ARPA	your.domain.rev

; These lines are a pair.  They represent the primary domain you control
; The first one is your domain and the second is the reverse lookup table.
; You need to have each DNS entry entered in to both files.
; You will need a pair of primary lines for each primary domain that 
; you administer.

secondary Berkeley.EDU	        128.32.130.11 128.32.133.1	ucbhosts.bak
secondary 32.128.IN-ADDR.ARPA	128.32.130.11 128.32.133.1	ucbhosts.rev.bak

; These lines are a pair also.  They represent the domains that you are 
; interested in knowing about if their DNS goes down.  Or you may just be
; the back up DNS for them.

; Instead of source files, you specify the host that is the primary DNS
; for that domain.  You must also specify that filename that named will
; store the temporary table in.
; You need a pair of these lines for each of the Domains that you are
; a secondary DNS for.
++++++++++++++++++++++End Example Named.boot File++++++++++++++++++

If you had the domain ``my.domain.com'', the IP Address range 10.20.40.0 - 10.20.40.255, and wanted to be the primary DNS for it, you would put this line in your named.boot file:

primary my.domain.com my.domain.com.zone

primary 40.20.10.IN-ADDR.ARPA my.domain.com.rev

Now you have to make the primary source file. Create a file called /etc/named/your.domain.zone Substitute you actual domain name. It must match the filename specified in the primary entry of named.boot

Here is an example of such a file.


IN	soa	bbcc.ctc.edu.	root.bbcc.ctc.edu. (
				28	;serial
				10800  ;refresh every 3 hours
				900    ;retry every 15 minutes
				604800 ;expire after a week
				86400  ;minimum of a day
				)
			IN		NS	bbcc.ctc.edu.
			IN		NS	ctc.ctc.edu.
			IN		NS	bb.cc.wa.us.
bbcc.ctc.edu.		IN		A	134.39.180.254
mail			IN		CNAME	bbcc.ctc.edu.
www			IN		CNAME	bbcc.ctc.edu.
irc			IN		CNAME	bbcc.ctc.edu.
bigbend.ctc.edu.	IN		CNAME	bbcc.ctc.edu.
athena	        	IN	 	A     	134.39.180.5
                	IN       	HINFO	intel 586-133 winnt
proto			IN		A	134.39.180.6
aries			IN		CNAME	bb.cc.wa.us.
sal			IN		A	134.39.180.8
dialup3			IN		A	134.39.180.252
;end of file.

5) Now you have to make the primary reverse lookup file. Create a file called /etc/named/your.domain.rev

Substitute your actual domain name. It must match the filename specified in the primary entry of named.boot

Here is an example of such a file.

IN	soa	bbcc.ctc.edu.	root.bbcc.ctc.edu. (
				28	;serial
				10800  ;refresh every 3 hours
				900    ;retry every 15 minutes
				604800 ;expire after a week
				86400  ;minimum of a day
				)
8		IN		PTR	sal.bbcc.ctc.edu.
252		IN		PTR	dialup.bbcc.ctc.edu.

35.   Router / GateWay

Not Yet Scheduled

36.   Firewall

Not Yet Scheduled

37.   IP Network Address Translation

37.1.  1)Loading the Kernel Module
37.2.  2) Setting up the NAT Rules
37.3.  3) Loading the NAT Rules:
37.4.  4)Enable Routing between interfaces.
37.5.  5) Static Routes to Subnet Ranges
37.6.  6) Make sure that you have your interfaces configured.

After you have installed IpFilter: You will need to change three files:

/etc/rc.local

/etc/sysconfig

/etc/natrules

This was tested using ipfilter 3.1.4 and FreeBSD 2.1.6-RELEASE

37.1.   1)Loading the Kernel Module

If you are using a Kernel Loadable Module you need to edit your /etc/rc.local file and load the module at boot time.

use the line: modload /lkm/if_ipl.o

If you are not loading a kernel module, skip this step.

37.2.   2) Setting up the NAT Rules

Make a file called /etc/natrules put in the rules that you need for your system. If you want to use the whole 10 Network. Try:

map fxp0 10.0.0.0/8 -> 208.8.0.1/32 portmap tcp/udp 10000:65000

Here is an explanation of each part of the command:

map starts the command.

fxp0 is the interface with the real internet address.

10.0.0.0 is the subnet you want to use.

/8 is the subnet mask. ie 255.0.0.0

208.8.0.1 is the real IP address that you use.

/32 is the subnet mask 255.255.255.255, ie only use this IP address.

portmap tcp/udp 10000:65000

tells it to use the ports to redirect the tcp/udp calls through The one line should work for the whole network.

37.3.   3) Loading the NAT Rules:

The NAT Rules will need to be loaded every time the computer reboots. In your /etc/rc.local put the line: ipnat -f /etc/natrules

To check and see if it is loaded, as root type: ipnat -ls

37.4.   4)Enable Routing between interfaces.

Tell the kernel to route these addresses. In the /etc/rc.conf put the line:

Gateway=YES

Or configure it by had by putting this line in the /etc/rc.local file :

sysctl -w net.inet.ip.forwarding=1

37.5.   5) Static Routes to Subnet Ranges

Now you have to add a static routes for the subnet ranges. Edit your /etc/rc.conf, or on an older system, your /etc/sysconfig to add them at bootup.

static_routes="foo" route_foo="10.0.0.0 -netmask 0xf0000000 -interface 10.0.0.1"

37.6.   6) Make sure that you have your interfaces configured.

I have two Intel Ether Express Pro B cards. One is on 208.8.0.1 The other is on 10.0.0.1 You need to configure these in the /etc/sysconfig 

network_interfaces="fxp0 fxp1"
ifconfig_fxp0="inet 208.8.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0"
ifconfig_fxp1="inet 10.0.0.1 netmask 255.0.0.0"

Note:

When using ftp from a client computer on the virtual network, you will need to use passive mode. Otherwise, it will time out trying to get a directory listing.

:
Setting up the X Window System

38.  Installing the X binaries
39.  Configuring X for your Hardware
40.  Starting X
41.  Choosing a X window manager
42.  Installing X programs
43.  Tips and Tricks for X

38.   Installing the X binaries

The X Window System is a graphical user interface designed to run on UNIX. There are many different X Window Systems that you can get, however only XFree86 is available for Free. XFree96 is a volunteer project separate from the FreeBSD project, but included on the FreeBSD CDROM. You can obtain more information from http://www.xfree86.org. From here on out, I will refer to XFree86 as X or the X Window System. Commercial X Window Systems for FreeBSD are availble from www.xig.com.

The X Window System can be installed during a regular FreeBSD install, or done after the system is up and running. X is included in several of the Distribution Sets provided in the FreeBSD install. These include

If you have installed one of these Distribution Sets, the X System is on your hard drive and you can skip ahead to configuration.

During a Custom Install, you can select the X Window System as part of the normal install procedure. If you don't install a Distribution Set that contains the X Window System, you have a second chance to install it during the post-install configuration menu. To install X from the post-install configuration menu, select Distributions and choose the X Window Distribution.

If your system is already running, you can install X from the ports collection. You will need to be root to do this:

The source code will be downloaded from the FTP site and then compiled and installed. This may take a while depending on the speed of your computer.

If neither of these methods are appealing, you can download the source code directly from www.xfree86.org and compile and install it yourself. Good Luck.

39.   Configuring X for your Hardware

39.1.  xf86config
39.2.  XF86Setup

Before you can configure X to use your hardware, you need to know what your hardware is. There are three things you absolutely have to know (or at least be able to guess correctly):

If you know these three things, setting up X is easy. The rest is just a matter of personal taste and geographic/language requirements. Once you have obtained this data, you will need to run either the text based config program (xf86config), or the graphical config program (XF86Setup). You do not need to run both.

39.1.   xf86config

xf86config is located in /usr/X11R6/bin/. If that is part of your path, you can just type xf86config and begin the configuration. Otherwise, you can type /usr/X11R6/bin/xf86config. You need to be root to do this.

The first thing it is going to ask you is which kind of mouse you have attached to the computer:

First specify a mouse protocol type. Choose one from the following list:

 1.  Microsoft compatible (2-button protocol)
 2.  Mouse Systems (3-button protocol)
 3.  Bus Mouse
 4.  PS/2 Mouse
 5.  Logitech Mouse (serial, old type, Logitech protocol)
 6.  Logitech MouseMan (Microsoft compatible)
 7.  MM Series
 8.  MM HitTablet
 9.  Microsoft IntelliMouse

Select 1 - 9 based on which type of mouse you have. If you select a mouse that has 3 buttons, it will ask you if you want to enable the center button, its called ChordMiddle:

Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'.
Do you want to enable ChordMiddle?

If you don't enable the Middle Button, it will ask you if you want to emulate the middle button. With the 3 button emulation enabled, if you press both mouse buttons simultaneously, X will pretend that you have pressed the center mouse button.

Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'.
Do you want to enable Emulate3Buttons?

Next it wants to know where the mouse is plugged into.

Now give the full device name that the mouse is connected to, for example
/dev/tty00. Just pressing enter will use the default, /dev/mouse.

Mouse device:

A mouse is usually plugged into either COM1, COM2, or the PS/2 Port.

Now it will ask you if you need to be able to re-map keyboard keys. If you don't know, just press ENTER

Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'.
Do you want to use XKB?

This if for special language support, if you speak only English, just press ENTER.

If you want your keyboard to generate non-ASCII characters in X, because
you want to be able to enter language-specific characters, you can
set the left Alt key to Meta, and the right Alt key to ModeShift.

Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'.
Do you want to enable these bindings for the Alt keys?

These are the Horizontal Refresh rates found in your Monitor manual. #2 is pretty safe if you don't know what your monitor does. You don;t want to selct a setting higher than your monitor is capable of. It is likely to damage an older monitor.

   hsync in kHz; monitor type with characteristic modes
 1  31.5; Standard VGA, 640x480 @ 60 Hz
 2  31.5 - 35.1; Super VGA, 800x600 @ 56 Hz
 3  31.5, 35.5; 8514 Compatible, 1024x768 @ 87 Hz interlaced (no 800x600)
 4  31.5, 35.15, 35.5; Super VGA, 1024x768 @ 87 Hz interlaced, 800x600 @ 56 Hz
 5  31.5 - 37.9; Extended Super VGA, 800x600 @ 60 Hz, 640x480 @ 72 Hz
 6  31.5 - 48.5; Non-Interlaced SVGA, 1024x768 @ 60 Hz, 800x600 @ 72 Hz
 7  31.5 - 57.0; High Frequency SVGA, 1024x768 @ 70 Hz
 8  31.5 - 64.3; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @ 60 Hz
 9  31.5 - 79.0; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @ 74 Hz
10  31.5 - 82.0; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @ 76 Hz
11  Enter your own horizontal sync range

Enter your choice (1-11):

You need to enter the Vertical refresh rate of your monitor. #2 is a very common SVGA setting.

 1  50-70
 2  50-90
 3  50-100
 4  40-150
 5  Enter your own vertical sync range

Enter your choice:

Answer y to this next question and find your card in the card database.

Do you want to look at the card database?

On the Left is the name of the card, and on the right is the card chipset.

 0  2 the Max MAXColor S3 Trio64V+                    S3 Trio64V+
  1  928Movie                                          S3 928
  2  AGX (generic)                                     AGX-014/15/16
  3  ALG-5434(E)                                       CL-GD5434
  4  ASUS PCI-AV264CT                                  ATI-Mach64
  5  ASUS PCI-V264CT                                   ATI-Mach64
  6  ASUS Video Magic PCI V864                         S3 864
  7  ASUS Video Magic PCI VT64                         S3 Trio64
  8  ATI 3D Pro Turbo                                  ATI-Mach64
  9  ATI 3D Xpression                                  ATI-Mach64
 10  ATI 3D Xpression+ PC2TV                           ATI-Mach64
 11  ATI 8514 Ultra (no VGA)                           ATI-Mach8
 12  ATI All-in-Wonder                                 ATI-Mach64
 13  ATI Graphics Pro Turbo                            ATI-Mach64
 14  ATI Graphics Pro Turbo 1600                       ATI-Mach64
 15  ATI Graphics Ultra                                ATI-Mach8
 16  ATI Graphics Ultra Pro                            ATI-Mach32
 17  ATI Graphics Xpression with 68875 RAMDAC          ATI-Mach64

Enter a number to choose the corresponding card definition.
Press enter for the next page, q to continue configuration.

The term X server used in this next section makes more sense if you think of it as ``video card driver'' instead. The driver suggested by the card database definition will always perform better. However if the card is not in the database, choose the next best card driver. #5 will contain the X server suggested by the card definition.

 1  The XF86_Mono server. This a monochrome server that should work on any
    VGA-compatible card, in 640x480 (more on some SVGA chipsets).
 2  The XF86_VGA16 server. This is a 16-color VGA server that should work on
    any VGA-compatible card.
 3  The XF86_SVGA server. This is a 256 color SVGA server that supports
    a number of SVGA chipsets. On some chipsets it is accelerated or
    supports higher color depths.
 4  The accelerated servers. These include XF86_S3, XF86_Mach32, XF86_Mach8,
    XF86_8514, XF86_P9000, XF86_AGX, XF86_W32, XF86_Mach64, XF86_I128 and
    XF86_S3V.

These four server types correspond to the four different "Screen" sections in
XF86Config (vga2, vga16, svga, accel).

 5  Choose the server from the card definition, XF86_S3.

Which one of these screen types do you intend to run by default (1-5)?

Now it needs to point startup code to the driver you have just chosen. Ifyou want it to be done automatically, press 'y'. If you want to do it your self later, press 'n'.

Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'.
Do you want me to set the symbolic link?

If you don't know, just press ENTER. It is automatically autodetected. 

How much video memory do you have on your video card:

 1  256K
 2  512K
 3  1024K
 4  2048K
 5  4096K
 6  Other

Enter your choice:

Unless the card definition tells you what to put, just press 'q'.

  1  ATT 20C490 (S3 and AGX servers, ARK driver)                att20c490
  2  ATT 20C498/21C498/22C498 (S3, autodetected)                att20c498
  3  ATT 20C409/20C499 (S3, autodetected)                       att20c409
  4  ATT 20C505 (S3)                                            att20c505
  5  BrookTree BT481 (AGX)                                       bt481
  6  BrookTree BT482 (AGX)                                       bt482
  7  BrookTree BT485/9485 (S3)                                   bt485
  8  Sierra SC15025 (S3, AGX)                                    sc15025
  9  S3 GenDAC (86C708) (autodetected)                           s3gendac
 10  S3 SDAC (86C716) (autodetected)                             s3_sdac
 11  STG-1700 (S3, autodetected)                                 stg1700
 12  STG-1703 (S3, autodetected)                                 stg1703

The card definition has Ramdac "bt485".


Enter a number to choose the corresponding RAMDAC.
Press enter for the next page, q to quit without selection of a RAMDAC.

Unless the card definitions tells you which to pick, just press ENTER.

 1  Chrontel 8391                                               ch8391
 2  ICD2061A and compatibles (ICS9161A, DCS2824)                icd2061a
 3  ICS2595                                                     ics2595
 4  ICS5342 (similar to SDAC, but not completely compatible)    ics5342
 5  ICS5341                                                     ics5341
 6  S3 GenDAC (86C708) and ICS5300 (autodetected)               s3gendac
 7  S3 SDAC (86C716)                                            s3_sdac
 8  STG 1703 (autodetected)                                     stg1703
 9  Sierra SC11412                                              sc11412
10  TI 3025 (autodetected)                                      ti3025
11  TI 3026 (autodetected)                                      ti3026
12  IBM RGB 51x/52x (autodetected)                              ibm_rgb5xx

The card definition has Clockchip "icd2595"

Just press enter if you don't want a Clockchip setting.
What Clockchip setting do you want (1-12)?

Unless the card definition says NOT to, go ahead and press y. This is an example of when NOT to probe for clocks.

You must be root to be able to run X -probeonly now.

The card definition says to NOT probe clocks.
Do you want me to run 'X -probeonly' now?

These are the list of resolutions that you can switch between. The defaults usually work. Unless you want to change these, just press ENTER.

Currently it is set to:

"640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 8bpp
"640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 16bpp
"640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 24bpp
"640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" for 32bpp

Note that 16, 24 and 32bpp are only supported on a few configurations.
Modes that cannot be supported due to monitor or clock constraints will
be automatically skipped by the server.

 1  Change the modes for 8pp (256 colors)
 2  Change the modes for 16bpp (32K/64K colors)
 3  Change the modes for 24bpp (24-bit color, packed pixel)
 4  Change the modes for 32bpp (24-bit color)
 5  The modes are OK, continue.

Enter your choice:

You need to press y here to save your configuration.

I am going to write the XF86Config file now. Make sure you don't accidently
overwrite a previously configured one.

Shall I write it to /etc/XF86Config?

There is a parameter in the /etc/XF86Config file that allows you to select the number of colors your screen will display. It's the ``DefaultColorDepth'' parameter. This parameter is not set by xf86config and will need to be added by hand. It is, however, set by XF86Setup You can set it to 8, 16, 24, or 32. Each has a corresponding subsection. The default it 8 bit color, or 256 colors. Inorder to achieve 16 Million colors, you would need to set it to 24 bit color.

In each subsection, you can set the resolutions you wish that color depth to use. Only accelerated graphics cards, and a very few svga cards can do color depths greater than 8. Most cards with 1MB of ram can only do 8 bit color at 1024 x 768.

Section "Screen"
    Driver      "accel"
    Device      "Trident TGUI9680 (generic)"
    Monitor     "My Monitor"
    DefaultColorDepth 8
    Subsection "Display"
        Depth       8
        Modes       "640x480" "800x600" "1024x768"
        ViewPort    0 0
    EndSubsection
    Subsection "Display"
        Depth       16
        Modes       "640x480" "800x600"
        ViewPort    0 0
    EndSubsection
    Subsection "Display"
        Depth       24
        Modes       "640x480"
        ViewPort    0 0
    EndSubsection
    Subsection "Display"
        Depth       32
        Modes       "640x400"
        ViewPort    0 0
    EndSubsection
EndSection

39.2.   XF86Setup

There is now a graphical interface for setting up X. It's XF86Setup and located in /usr/X11R6/bin.

It will switch you into graphics mode and let you point and click your way through the configuration. It requires all the same information that xf86config does. If you fail to get X running with XF86Setup you can always try xf86config.

40.   Starting X

By default, FreeBSD boots to the text based login screen. 

FreeBSD/i386 (vnode.vmunix.com) (ttyp8)

login:

From here each user can log into the console and type startx and X will start. Typing startx will use default values in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xinit/system.xinitrc. These can be over-ridden by placing .xinitrc in your home directory. The .xinitrc file is a script that gets run every time startx is executed. The # character is used to comment out lines. 

setenv KDEDIR /usr/local
startkde
#color_xterm -geometry 80x24+0+0 &
#color_xterm -geometry 80x23+-1+341 &
#color_xterm -geometry 85x24+492+1 -ls &
#fvwm95
#fvwm
#enlightenment

It is possible to configure X to start autmatically and provide graphical login services. This configuration allows remote X terminals. Typing xdm as root, will start graphical logins immediately. Adding xdm to your /etc/ttys file will start xdm at boot up.

ttyv0   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on  secure
# Virtual terminals
ttyv1   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on  secure
ttyv2   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on  secure
ttyv3   "/usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon"  xterm   on  secure

When users log in using xdm .xinitrc is ignored. Instead a different file, .xsession, is executed. None of the users normal startup scripts are initialized during startup, therefore, .xsession must contain all file location and shell information that is needed to start X.

The .xsession file must be executable. You can do this by typing chmod u+x .xsession. Here is an example .xsession that starts kde: 

#!/usr/local/bin/tcsh
set path = (/bin /sbin /usr/bin /usr/sbin /usr/local/bin /usr/local/sbin /usr/X11R6/bin )
setenv KDEDIR /usr/local/
startkde

If a user attemps to log in and the .xsession file does not exist, or has problems, the user will be denied access and errors will be logged to .xsession-errors in that users home directory.

41.   Choosing a X window manager

41.1.  twm
41.2.  fvwm
41.3.  fvwm95
41.4.  enlightenment
41.5.  windowmaker
41.6.  kde

Before running X you need to choose which Window Manager you want to use. If you don't select a window manager, twm will be automatically started for you. You choose which Window Manager you want in the file .xinitrc or .xsession as outlined in the previous section. If it doesn't exist, you will need to create it.

Here is a copy of my .xinitrc file. 

setenv KDEDIR /usr/local
startkde
#color_xterm -geometry 80x24+0+0 &
#color_xterm -geometry 80x23+-1+341 &
#color_xterm -geometry 85x24+492+1 -ls &
#fvwm95
#fvwm
#enlightenment

I currently have kde selected as my window manager, I have three other window managers commented out. You can only specify one window manager at a time.

41.1.   twm

This window manager is setup by default. Its not very user friendly and has no support for virtual desktops.

41.2.   fvwm

fvwm has nine virtual desktops and a Windows 3.1 look and feel. Novell 5 Currently uses a version of fvwm as their window manager for their server console.

After fvwm is installed, all you need to do is add fvwm to your .xinitrc or .xsession file.

41.3.   fvwm95

Looks like Windows 95 with all the fvwm toolbars. Very stable and has nine virt ual desktops. It requires its own configuration file, .fvwm95rc.

41.4.   enlightenment

A reallly cool looking desktop. Has support for pluggable desktop themes, such as ``aliens''. Supports four virtual desktops.

41.5.   windowmaker

Allows you to create and delete virtual desktops on demand.

41.6.   kde

kde is a complete desktop environment. It comes complete with all its own utilities and programs. Therefore its HUGE, but versitile and easy to setup. kde is becoming very popular for new users.

To install kde you need the ports collection instaled. Currently this is the only way to install kde.

cd /usr/ports/x11/kde make install

42.   Installing X programs

Netscape

Staroffice

43.   Tips and Tricks for X

:
System Administration

44.  Setting up Printing Services
45.  User Administration
46.  System Administration

44.   Setting up Printing Services

There are three steps to setting up printing services:

  1. Edit the /etc/printcap and make an entry for the printer.

  2. Create a spool directory for lpd to store print jobs in.

  3. Start the line printer daemon lpd

Information about what printers are available to print from is contained in the file /etc/printcap. FreeBSD can print to printers connected to any valid port on the server, both parallel and serial. It can also print to any TCP/IP capable printer, such as those attached to other FreeBSD Boxes, and those attached to network printing devices, like Jet Direct cards.

Here is the standard /etc/printcap file:

#	@(#)printcap	5.3 (Berkeley) 6/30/90
# $Id: printing.docb,v 1.1.1.1 1999/04/03 19:28:04 chrisc Exp $

#
# This enables a simple local "raw" printer, hooked up to the first
# parallel port.  No kind of filtering is done, so everything you
# pass to the "lpr" command will be printed unmodified.
#
# Remember, for further print queues you're going to add, you have to
# chose different spool directories (the "sd" capability below),
# otherwise you will greatly confuse lpd.
#
# For some advanced printing, have a look at the "apsfilter" package.
# It plugs into the lpd system, allowing you to print a variety of
# different file types by converting everything to PostScript(tm)
# format.  If you don't have a PostScript(tm) printer, don't panic,
# but do also install the "ghostscript" package.
#
# Do also refer to section 7 (Printing) of the handbook.  A local copy
# can be found under /usr/share/doc/handbook/handbook.{html,latin1}.
#
lp|local line printer:\
	:lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/output/lpd:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs:
#
# Sample remote printer.  The physical printer is on machine "lphost".
# NB: you cannot perform any kind of local filtering directly.  If
# you need local filters (e.g. LF -> CR-LF conversion for HP printers),
# create a filter script that recursively calls lpd with another -P
# argument after filtering.
#
#remote|sample remote printer:\
#	:rm=lphost:sd=/var/spool/output/lphost:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs:

The line 

lp|local line printer:\
	:lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/output/lpd:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs:

from the above file, enables the default generic printer attached to /dev/lpt0. (Same as LPT1 on DOS systems)

For a printer to print, it needs a spool directory, or a place to temporarily store the file it is printing. This is sometimes called a queue; a print queue. When a print job is sent, but cannot be printed, it will be placed in this directory as a file. As soon as the printer is available, it will be sent to the printer. The spool directory in the example above is /var/spool/output/lpd

Note:

Post script printers are just like regular printers. Nothing special is required to set them up. Setting up a Non-post script printer to accept post script documents requires the a2ps or apsfilter package from the ports/packages collection

Also reference the man pages for: lpd lpr lpc pr

45.   User Administration

45.1.  Deleting Old Users
45.2.  Moving Home Directories
45.3.  vipw; chpass;
45.4.  Managing Groups; /etc/group

45.1.   Deleting Old Users

Deleting users in FreeBSD is super simple thanks to the handy program rmuser. All you do is type rmuser username, where username is the name of the user who is about to be nuked.

rmuser basically does four things for you:

1. Removes the user's home directory, as it is defined in the password file. Usually, this will be /home/username.

2. Removes the user's mail spool. This is located in /var/mail/username

3. Removes the user from any groups they are present in. Groups are stored in /etc/group.

4. Removes the user from the password file, /etc/passwd

It's good to know the steps that are involved in cleansing a user from your system. If you're a system administrator, it will often be necessary to temporarily remove users from a system by preventing them from logging in. You can do this by simply editing the password file with vipw and placing a # at the front of their encrypted password. When you want to reinstate the user you just remove the # sign!

45.2.   Moving Home Directories

Not Yet Scheduled

45.3.   vipw; chpass;

Not Yet Scheduled -- Modified for review GA Vipw provides the interface for a sysadmin to edit the password file. It must be used as root, and it uses the EDITOR variable to determine which editor to use (or vi if not set). This is an advanced interface, allowing a sysadmin with knowledge of the layout to quickly edit the password file. The format of the records, one per line, is: operator:*:2:20::0:0:System:/usr/guest/operator:/bin/csh The first field is the user id. This is the string identifier that the user actually sees and works with. The second field is the encrypted password. Third is the numeric userid, commonly called UID, that the system actually uses. Next is the numeric groupid, or GID, which is mapped to a "group" name in the groups file. The fourth field encodes the user's login class; this is used for associating a user with various pre-defined settings. The fifth field is the time a password must be changed. The sixth field is the time an account expires. Both of these times are in seconds since the epoch GMT. The seventh field is the so-called "GECOS" field, more commonly used for the user's full name. It can, if comma seperated, contain the user's fullname, their office location, work phone and home phone. The eighth field specifies the absolute path to the user's home directory. The ninth field is the shell field. If left blank, will run the Bourne shell; otherwise, it specifies the full path to the shell. In our example, the user "operator" has no password; He is UID 2, and GID 20. He has no login class, and his password and account don't expire. His fullname is "System", and his home directory is /usr/guest/operator. He uses the C Shell. Vipw is a tool that lets a savvy sys-admin edit the password file in a safe but efficient way. It allows you to use all of the power and comfort you have with your own editor to simply and quickly change the password file. Chpass similarly provides the interface for a user to edit his/her entry in the password file. It places the user in an editor and allows them to edit Fields in the password file they are allowed to change. If our username was sample, a chpass session might look like: #Changing user database information for sample. Shell: /bin/csh Full Name: Sample Guy Location: Office Phone: Home Phone: In this case, we are allowed to change any of the GECOS information and our shell. Usually, that is all we want to change (as an end user). Of course as root we can specify other users and we are allowed to edit more fields. This may be useful for an occaional admin, or one just starting out.

45.4.   Managing Groups; /etc/group

Not Yet Scheduled

46.   System Administration

46.1.  booting -c or -s
46.2.  File Systems; mount; fsck; fdisk; umount
46.3.  MAKEDEV; tar; cron;

46.1.   booting -c or -s

Not Yet Scheduled

46.2.   File Systems; mount; fsck; fdisk; umount

Not Yet Scheduled

46.3.   MAKEDEV; tar; cron;

Not Yet Scheduled

:
Practical FreeBSD Applications

47.  FreeBSD As A Dialup Server
48.  FreeBSD as a LAN Server

47.   FreeBSD As A Dialup Server

47.1.  Installing a Modem
47.2.  Configuring the modems
47.3.  Multiport modem boards.
47.4.  pppd

47.1.   Installing a Modem

47.1.1.  Pre-Install
47.1.2.  Install Hardware.
47.1.3.   Configuring a Modem IRQ/COM Port and Device Driver

47.1.1.   Pre-Install

Before you install the modem in your computer, you need to know a few things:

  1. The COM port the modem is currently on.

    There are 4 COM ports available on a standard Computer. The Mouse will usually take up the first one; unless you have a PS/2 Mouse.

  2. How to Change the COM ports on the Modem.

    Most Modems come with Jumpers on the board that you can change, however some of the new ones are Plug N Play.

  3. What the IRQ setting currently is.

    There are 15 IRQ setting available, but most of them are already in use. Commonly you can assign IRQ's 3,4,5,9, and 10.

  4. How to Change the IRQ setting.

    As with COM Ports, most Modems come with Jumpers on the board that you can change, however some of the new ones are Plug N Play.

  5. What Speed the Modem is.

    Usually it will be a 14,400 Bps, 28,800 Bps, or 33,600 Bps. There are a few new ones that run at 56,700 Bps or higher.

  6. What COM ports are available in your Computer.

  7. What IRQ's are available in your Computer.

Now you want to select an IRQ and a COM port that is available in your computer and set the modem jumpers to match it.

47.1.2.   Install Hardware.

Now we need to install the Modem in your Computer.

  1. Shutdown FreeBSD; type: shutdown -h now as root.

  2. Turn off Computer and unplug it. (just to Be safe)

  3. Remove Cover

  4. Install Modem; Make sure the modem is securely seated in slot and the retaining screw is tight.

  5. Plug Phone Cord into Modem.

  6. Replace cover; plug it in and turn it on.

Now your Modem is installed.

47.1.3.   Configuring a Modem IRQ/COM Port and Device Driver

Turn on your Computer and Boot to FreeBSD with the -c Option. If your computer is already on, you will need to reboot it. At start-up, you will see the Boot: prompt; type -c and press ENTER. 

>> FreeBSD BOOT @ 0x10000: 639/31744 K of Memory

Usage: [[[0:]fd](0,a)]/kernel][-abcCdghrsv]

Use 1:sd(0,a)/kernel to boot sd0 if it is BIOS drive 1

Use ? for file list or Enter for defaults

Boot: -c

Now it should start booting and take you to a config> prompt. Here you need to type visual

47.2.   Configuring the modems

Not Yet Scheduled

47.3.   Multiport modem boards.

BocaBoard 16 Port

In order to use a Multi port board, you need to modify your kernel. If you have never built your own custom kernel, see the directions on Creating Custom Kernels in the Basic FreeBSD programming section.

In your Custom Kernel Config File, add the following line at the top of the document:

	options		COM_MULTIPORT		#Multi-Port Support

Next you need to add support for the extra COM ports. Each new COM port needs to have a "device" entry in the Kernel Config File or the Kernel will not be able to recognize it as a valid piece of hardware. BOCA Multi-port boards use a shared IRQ.

You will need to specify the Port memory starting address and the IRQ of the card using the jumpers found on the card. Follow the instructions provided by BOCA for the card that you use.

A BOCA 8 port board will not work because it doesn't have the modem control capabilities. You will also need to buy db25 to rj45/10 connectors to connect from the BOCA breakout box to the external modems.

You will need to add the following to your Kernel Config File, assuming that your starting port address is 100h and the IRQ is 12.

This is an example of a BOCA 16 port Board Sharing IRQ 12, with a starting address of 100H. Adjust your settings as required. You'll notice that I commented out sio1-3 from the File, but left sio0. I am using a mouse on COM1 and am not using any of the other Serial ports. You can start the BOCA sio numbering at the first free COM Port.

Save the file and rebuild your kernel.

Now we need to edit /etc/ttys and add the lines to activate all the extra lines.

Next we create the required devices in /dev

Next we edit /etc/modems so it initializes all the new Devices at startup.

Last we reboot.

47.4.   pppd

Not Yet Scheduled

48.   FreeBSD as a LAN Server

48.1.  PC Imaging Software (Pcrdist and Samba)

48.1.   PC Imaging Software (Pcrdist and Samba)

Not Yet Scheduled